Abstract
Although aquatic resources are often seen as central to the development of post-Pleistocene cultural complexity, most models of human evolution have all but ignored the role of aquatic or maritime adaptations during the earlier stages of human history. When did aquatic resources, maritime adaptations, and seafaring first play a significant role in human evolution? I explore this fundamental question by (1) reviewing various theories on the subject; (2) discussing a variety of problems that prevent archaeologists from providing a clear answer; and (3) examining the archaeological record for evidence of early aquatic resource use or seafaring. I conclude that aquatic resources, wherever they were both abundant and relatively accessible, have probably always been used opportunistically by our ancestors. Evidence suggests, however, that aquatic and maritime adaptations (including seafaring) played a significantly greater role in the demographic and geographic expansion of anatomically modern humans after about 150,000 years ago. Another significant expansion occurred somewhat later in time, with the development of more sophisticated seafaring, fishing, and marine hunting technologies.
Similar content being viewed by others
REFERENCES CITED
Ackerman, R. E., Reid, K. C., Gallison, J. D., and Roe, M. E. (1985). Archaeology of Heceta Island: A Survey of 16 Timber Harvest Units in the Tongass National Forest, Southeastern Alaska, Project Report No. 3, Center for Northwest Anthropology, Washington State University, Pullman.
Aikens, C. M., and Akazawa, T. (1996). The Pleistocene-Holocene transition in Japan and adjacent northeast Asia: Climate and biotic change, broad-spectrum diet, pottery, and sedentism. In Straus, L. G., Eriksen, B. V., Erlandson, J. M., and Yesner, D. R. (eds.), Humans at the End of the Ice Age: The Archaeology of the Pleistocene-Holocene Transition, Plenum Press, New York, pp. 215–227.
Aikens, C. M., and Higuchi, T. (1982). Prehistory of Japan, Academic Press, New York.
Allen, J., Gosden, C., Jones, R., and White, J. P. (1989a). Pleistocene dates for the human occupation of New Ireland, northern Melanesia. Nature 331: 707–709.
Allen, J., Gosden, C., and White, J. P. (1989b). Pleistocene New Ireland. Antiquity 63: 548–561.
Allen, J., and Kershaw, P. (1996). The Pleistocene-Holocene transition in greater Australia. In Straus, L. G., Eriksen, B. V., Erlandson, J. M., and Yesner, D. R. (eds.), Humans at the End of the Ice Age: The Archaeology of the Pleistocene-Holocene Transition, Plenum Press, New York, pp. 175–199.
Altena, C. O. V. R. (1962). Molluscs and echinoderms from Paleolithic deposits in the rock shelter of Ksar 'Akil, Lebanon. Zoologische Meddelingen(Leiden) 38(5): 87–99.
Anderson, S. H. (1985). Tybrind Vig: A preliminary report on a submerged Ertebolle settlement on the west coast of Fyn. Journal of Danish Archaeology 4: 52–69.
Anderson, S. H. (1987). Mesolithic dug-outs and paddles from Tybrind Vig, Denmark. Acta Archaeologica 57: 87–106.
Arambourg, C. (1967). Appendix A: Observations sur le faune des Grottes d'Hercule pres de Tanger, Maroc. In Howe, B. (ed.), The Paleolithic of Tangier, Morocco: Excavations at Cape Ashakar, 1939–1947, Bulletin 22, American School of Prehistoric Research, Peabody Museum, Harvard University, Cambridge, pp. 181–186.
Auffenberg, W. (1981). The fossil turtles of Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania. Copeia 3: 509–552.
Baden-Powell, D. F. W. (1964). Gorham's Cave, Gibraltar: Report on the climatic equivalent of the marine mollusca. Bulletin of the Institute of Archaeology 4: 216–218.
Bailey, G. N. (1975). The role of shellfish in coastal economies: The results of midden analysis in Australia. Journal of Archaeological Science 2: 45–62.
Bailey, G. N. (1978). Shell middens as indicators of post-glacial economies: A territorial perspective. In Mellars, P. (ed.), The Early Post-glacial Settlement of Northern Europe, Duckworth, London, pp. 37–63.
Bailey, G. N. (1983a). Problems of site formation and the interpretation of spatial and temporal discontinuities in the distribution of coastal middens. In Masters, P. M., and Flemming, N. C. (eds.), Quaternary Coastlines and Marine Archaeology: Towards the Prehistory of Land Bridges and Continental Shelves, Academic Press, New York, pp. 559–582.
Bailey, G. N. (1983b). Economic changes in Late Pleistocene Cantabria. In Bailey, G. N. (ed.), Hunter-Gatherer Economy in Prehistory: A European Perspective, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 149–165.
Barker, G. W. W. (1974). Prehistoric territories and economies in central Italy. In Higgs, E. S. (ed.), Paleoeconomy, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 111–175.
Barton, R. N. E., Currant, A. P., Fernandez-Jalvo, Y., Finlayson, J. C., Goldberg, P., MacPhail, R., Pettitt, P. B., and Stringer, C. B. (1999). Gibraltar Neanderthals and results of recent excavations in Gorham's, Vanguard and Ibex caves. Antiquity 73: 13–23.
Bar-Yosef, O. (1994). The Lower Paleolithic of the Near East. Journal ofWorld Prehistory 8: 211–265.
Bass, G. F. (1972). Introduction. In Bass, G. F. (ed.), A History of Seafaring, Walker and Company, New York, pp. 9–10.
Beaton, J. M. (1991). Palaeoindian occupation greater than 11,000 years B. P. at Tule Lake, Northern California. Current Research in the Pleistocene 8: 5–7.
Bednarik, R. G. (1998). Anexperiment into Pleistocene seafaring. The International Journal of Nautical Archaeology 27(2): 139–149.
Bednarik, R. G., Holman, B., and Rogers, P. (1999). Nale Tasih 2: Journey of a Middle Paleolithic raft. The International Journal of Nautical Archaeology 28: 25–33.
Bigalke, E. H. (1973). The exploitation of shellfish by the coastal tribesmen of the Transkei. Annals of the Cape Province Museum 9: 159–175.
Binford, L. R. (1968). Post-Pleistocene adaptations. In Binford, L. R., and Binford, S. R. (eds.), New Perspectives in Archeology, Aldine, Chicago, pp. 313–341.
Binford, L. R. (1984). Faunal Remains From Klasies River Mouth, Academic Press, New York.
Birdsell, J. B. (1953). Some environmental and cultural factors influencing the structuring of Australian aboriginal populations. American Naturalist 87: 171–207.
Borden, C. E. (1979). Peopling and early cultures of the Pacific Northwest. Science 203: 963–971.
Bowdler, S. (1990). The Silver Dollar site, Shark Bay: An interim report. Australian Aboriginal Studies 2: 60–63.
Bowler, J. M., Jones, R., Allen, H. R., and Thorne, A. G. (1970). Pleistocene human remains from Australia: A living site and human cremation at Lake Mungo. World Archaeology 2: 39–60.
Briggs, L. C. (1967). Appendix B. The mollusks. In Howe, B. (ed.), The Palaeolithic of Tangier, Morocco: Excavations at Cape Ashakar, 1939–1947, Bulletin 22, American School of Prehistoric Research, Peabody Museum, Harvard University, Cambridge, p. 187.
Brink, J. S., and Deacon, H. J. (1982).Astudy of a Last Interglacial shell midden and bone accumulation at Herolds's Bay, Cape Province, South Africa. Paleoecology of Africa 15: 31–39.
Brooks, A. S., Helgren, D. M., Cramer, J. S., Franklin, A., Hornyak, W., Keating, J. M., Klein, R. G., Rink, W. J., Schwarcz, H., Smith, J. N. L., Stewart, K., Todd, N. E., Verniers, J., and Yellen, J. E. (1995). Dating and context of three Middle Stone Age sites with bone points in the Upper Semliki Valley, Zaire. Science 268: 548–552.
Broughton, J. M., and O'Connell, J. F. (1999). On evolutionary ecology, selectionist archaeology, and behavioral archaeology. American Antiquity 64: 153–165.
Buchanan, W. F. (1988). Shellfishing and Prehistoric Diet: Elands Bay, S.W. Cape Coast, South Africa, BAR International Series 455, Oxford.
Butler, V. L. (1993). Natural versus cultural salmonid remains: Origin of the Dalles Roadcut bones, Columbia River, Oregon, U.S.A. Journal of Archaeological Science 20: 1–24.
Butler, V. L. (1996). Tui chub taphonomy and importance of marsh resources in the western basin of North America. American Antiquity 61: 699–717.
Butler, V. L., and Chatters, J. C. (1994). The role of bone density in structuring prehistoric salmon bone assemblages. Journal of Archaeological Science 21: 413–424.
Butzer, K. (1971). Environmental Archaeology, Aldine, Chicago.
Cachel, S., and Harris, J. W. K. (1998). The lifeways of Homo erectusinferred from archaeology and evolutionary ecology: A perspective from East Africa. In Petraglia, M. D., and Korisettar, R. (eds.), Early Human Behavior in Global Context, Routledge, London, pp. 108–132.
Carlson, R. L. (1998). Coastal British Columbia in the light of North Pacific maritime adaptations. Arctic Anthropology 35: 23–35.
Caulk, G. (1988). Examination of Some Faunal Remains From the Marmes Rockshelter Floodplain, Masters Thesis, Department of Anthropology, Washington State University, Pullman.
Cherry, J. F. (1990). The first colonization of the Mediterranean islands: A review of recent research. Journal of Mediterranean Archaeology 3(2): 145–221.
Chilardi, S., Frayer, D. W., Giola, P., Macchiarelli, R., and Mussi, M. (1996). Fontana Nuova di Ragusa (Sicily, Italy): Southernmost Aurignacian site in Europe. Antiquity 70: 553–563.
Claassen, C. (1991). Normative thinking and shell-bearing sites. Archaeological Method and Theory 3: 249–298.
Claassen, C. (1998). Shells, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
Clark, J. G. D. (1936). The Mesolithic Settlement of Northern Europe, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
Clark, J. G. D. (1946). Seal-hunting in the Stone Age of north-western Europe: A study in economic prehistory. Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society 12: 48.
Clark, J. G. D. (1947). Whales as an economic factor in prehistoric Europe. Antiquity 21: 84–104.
Clark, J. G. D. (1948). The development of fishing in prehistoric Europe. The Antiquaries Journal 27: 45–85.
Clark, G. A. (1974–1975). Excavations in the Late Pleistocene cave site of Balmori, Asturias, Spain. Quaternaria 18: 383–426.
Clark, J. T. (1991). Early settlement of the Indo-Pacific. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 10: 27–53.
Clark, G. A., and Cartledge, T. R. (1973). Recent excavations at the Cave of Coberizas (Province of Asturias, Spain). Quaternaria 18: 387–412.
Clark, G. A., and Straus, L. G. (1983). Late Pleistocene hunter-gatherer adaptations in Cantabrian Spain. In Bailey, G. N. (ed.), Hunter-Gatherer Economy in Prehistory: A European Perspective, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 131–148.
Cleyet-Merle, J. (1990). La prehistoire de la peche, Editions Errance, Paris.
Cleyet-Merle, J., and Madelaine, S. (1995). Inland evidence of human sea coast exploitation in Palaeolithic France. In Fischer, A. (ed.), Man and Sea in the Mesolithic, Oxbow Monographs 53, Oxford, pp. 303–308.
Clottes, J., Beltran, A., Courtin, J., and Cosquer, H. (1992). The Cosquer Cave on Cape Morgiou, Marseilles. Antiquity 66: 583–598.
Clottes, J., and Courtin, J. (1996). The Cave Beneath the Sea: Paleolithic Images at Cosquer, H. N. Abrams, New York.
Cohen, M. N. (1977). The Food Crisis in Prehistory: Overpopulation and the Origin of Agriculture, Yale University Press, New Haven.
Cohen, M. N. (1981). Pacific Coast foragers: Affluent or overcrowded? Senri Ethnological Studies 9: 275–295.
Colten, R. H., and Arnold, J. E. (1998). Prehistoric marine mammal hunting on California's Northern Channel Islands. American Antiquity 63: 679–701.
Connolly, T. J., Erlandson, J. M., and Norris, S. E. (1995). Early Holocene basketry from Daisy Cave, San Miguel Island, California. American Antiquity 60: 309–318.
Copeland, L., and Moloney, N. (eds.) (1998). The Mousterian Site of Ras el-Kelb, Lebanon, BAR International Series 706, Oxford.
Couper, A. (1989). The Times Atlas and Encyclopedia of the Sea, Harper and Row, New York.
Cutting, C. L. (1962). Historical aspects of fish. In Borgstrom, G. (ed.), Fish as Food II, Academic Press, New York.
Davidson, I., and Noble, W. (1992). Why the first colonisation of the Australian region is the earliest evidence of modern human behaviour. Archaeology in Oceania 27: 113–119.
Davis, S. D. (ed.) (1989). The Hidden Falls Site, Baranof Island, Alaska, Aurora Monographs V, Alaska Anthropological Association, Anchorage.
de Lumley, H. (1969). A Paleolithic camp at Nice. Scientific American 220: 42–50.
Deacon, H. J., and Deacon, J. (1999). Human Beginnings in South Africa: Uncovering the Secrets of the Stone Age, Altamira Press, Walnut Creek, CA.
Débénath, A., and Sbihi-Alaoui, F. (1979). Découverte de deux nouveaux gisements préhistoriques pres de Rabat (Maroc). Bulletin de la societe prehistorique Francaise 76: 11–12.
Dillehay, T. D. (1997). Monte Verde, A Late Pleistocene Settlement in Chile, Vol. 2: The Archaeological Context and Interpretation, Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, DC.
Dixon, E. J. (1999). Bones, Boats, and Bison: Archeology and the First Colonization of Western North America, University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque.
Dunbar, J. S. (1997). Inundated Paleoindian and Archaic Sites of the Coastal Margins and Continental Shelf in the Southeastern United States, Paper Presented at the 163rd Annual Meeting of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, Seattle.
Dunbar, J. S., Webb, S. D., and Faught, M. (1992). Inundated prehistoric sites in Apalachee Bay, Florida, and the search for the Clovis shoreline. In Johnson, L. L., and Stright, M. (eds.), Paleoshorelines and Prehistory: An Investigation of Method, CRC Press, Boca Raton, pp. 117–146.
Eastham, A. (1968). The avifauna of Gorham's Cave, Gibraltar. Bulletin of the Institute of Archaeology 7: 37–42.
Emery, K. O., and Edwards, R. L. (1966). Archaeological potential of the Atlantic continental shelf. American Antiquity 31: 733–737.
Engelbrecht, W. E., and Seyfert, C. K. (1995). Paleoindian watercraft: Evidence and implications. North American Archaeologist 15: 221–234.
Erlandson, J. M. (1988). The role of shellfish in coastal economies: A protein perspective. American Antiquity 53: 102–109.
Erlandson, J. M. (1989). Analysis of the shellfish assemblage. In Davis, S. D. (ed.), The Hidden Falls Site, Baranof Island, Alaska, Aurora Monographs 5, Alaska Anthropological Association, Anchorage, pp. 131–158.
Erlandson, J. M. (1991). Shellfish and seeds as optimal resources: Early Holocene subsistence on the Santa Barbara coast. In Erlandson, J. M., and Colten, R. (eds.), Hunter-Gatherers of Early Holocene Coastal California, Perspectives in California Archaeology 1, Institute of Archaeology, University of California, Los Angeles, pp. 89–100.
Erlandson, J. M. (1994). Early Hunter-Gatherers of the California Coast, Plenum Press, New York.
Erlandson, J. M. (in press). Anatomically modern humans, maritime voyaging, and the Pleistocene colonization of the Americas. In Jablonski, N. (ed.), The First Americans: The Pleistocene Colonization of the New World, Memoirs of the California Academy of Sciences, San Francisco.
Erlandson, J. M., Kennett, D. J., Ingram, B. L., Guthrie, D. A., Morris, D. P., Tveskov, M., West, G. J., and Walker, P. (1996). An archaeological and paleontological chronology for Daisy Cave (CA-SMI-261), San Miguel Island, California. Radiocarbon 38: 355–373.
Erlandson, J. M., and Morris, D. P. (1992). Notes on a “Pleistocene” shell midden on Santa Rosa Island, California. Current Research in the Pleistocene 9: 7–10.
Erlandson, J. M., and Moss, M. L. (1996). The Pleistocene–Holocene transition along the Pacific Coast of North America. In Straus, L. G., Eriksen, B. V., Erlandson, J. M., and Yesner, D. R. (eds.), Humans at the End of the Ice Age: The Archaeology of the Pleistocene–Holocene Transition, Plenum Press, New York, pp. 277–301.
Erlandson, J. M., and Moss, M. L. (in press). Shellfish eaters, carrion feeders, and aquatic adaptations. American Antiquity.
Erlandson, J. M., Tveskov, M. A., and Byram, R. S. (1998). The development of maritime adaptations on the southern Northwest Coast of North America. Arctic Anthropology 35: 6–22.
Ewing, J. F. (1947). Preliminary note on the excavations at the Paleolithic site of Ksar 'Akil, Republic of Lebanon. Antiquity 21: 186–196.
Facchini, F., and Giusberti, G. (1992). Homo sapiens sapiensremains from the island of Crete. In Brauer, G., and Smith, F. H. (eds.), Continuity or Replacement: Controversies in Homo sapiens Evolution, A. A. Balkema, Rotterdam, pp. 189–208.
Fagan, B. M. (1990). The Journey From Eden: The Peopling of Our World, Thames and Hudson, London.
Fagan, B. M. (2001). In the Beginning: An Introduction to Archaeology, Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ.
Faught, M. K., Dunbar, J. S., and Webb, D. S. (1992). New evidence for Paleoindians on the continental shelf of northwestern Florida. Current Research in the Pleistocene 9: 11–12.
Fedje, D. W., and Christensen, T. (1999). Modeling paleoshorelines and locating early Holocene coastal sites in Haida Gwaii. American Antiquity 64: 635–652.
Fernandez-Jalvo, Y., Andrews, P., and Denys, C. (1999). Cut marks on small mammals at Olduvai Gorge Bed-I. Journal of Human Evolution 36: 587–589.
Fischer, A. (1995a). Epilogue to the man and sea symposium. In Fischer, A. (ed.), Man and Sea in the Mesolithic, Oxbow Monograph 53, Oxford, pp. 431–435.
Fischer, A. (ed.) (1995b). Man and Sea in the Mesolithic: Coastal Settlement Above and Below Present Sea Level, Oxbow Monograph 53, Oxford.
Fitzhugh,W. (1975). A comparative approach to northern maritime adaptations. In Fitzhugh, W. (ed.), Prehistoric Maritime Adaptations of the Circumpolar Zone, Mouton, Paris, pp. 339–386.
Flemming, N. C. (1983). Survival of submerged lithic and Bronze Age artifact sites: A review of case histories. In Masters, P. M., and Flemming, N. C. (eds.), Quaternary Coastlines and Marine Archaeology: Towards the Prehistory of Land Bridges and Continental Shelves, Academic Press, New York, pp. 135–173.
Flemming, N. C. (1998). Archaeological evidence for vertical movement on the continental shelf during the Palaeolithic, Neolithic and Bronze Age periods. In Stewart, I. S., and Vita-Finzi, C. (eds.), Coastal Tectonics, Geological Society Special Publications 146, London, pp. 129–146.
Flood, J. (1990). Archaeology of the Dreamtime, Yale University Press, New Haven.
Gagliano, S. M. (1970). Progress Report: Archaeological and Geological Studies at Avery Island, 1968–1970, Coastal Studies Institute, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge.
Gamble, C. (1986). The Palaeolithic Settlement of Europe, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
Gamble, C. (1994). Timewalkers: The Prehistory of Global Colonization, Harvard University Press, Cambridge.
Gamble, C. (1998). Concluding remarks: Archaeology's fifth big question. In Petraglia, M. D., and Korisettar, R. (eds.), Early Human Behavior in Global Context, Routledge, London, pp. 451–468.
Garrod, D. A. E., Buxton, L. H. D., Smith, G. E., and Bate, D. M. A. (1928). Excavation of a Mousterian rock-shelter at Devil's Tower, Gibraltar. Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland 58: 33–113.
Garson, A. G. (1980). Comment upon the economic potential of fish utilization in riverine environments and potential archaeological biases. American Antiquity 45: 562–567.
Glassow, M. A., and Wilcoxon, L. (1988). Coastal adaptations near Point Conception, California, with particular regard to shellfish exploitation. American Antiquity 53: 36–51.
Glover, I. C. (1981). Leang Burung 2: An Upper Paleolithic rock shelter in south Sulawesi, Indonesia. Modern Quaternary Research in Southeast Asia 6: 1–38.
Goldberg, P. (2000). Micromorphology and site formation at DieKelders Cave 1, South Africa. Journal of Human Evolution 38: 43–90.
Goodyear, A. C. (1982). The chronological position of the Dalton horizon in the southeastern United States. American Antiquity 47: 382–395.
Green, T. J., Cochran, B., Fenton, T., Woods, J. C., Titums, G., Tieszen, L., Davis, M. A., and Miller, S. (1998). The Buhl burial: A Paleoindian woman from southern Idaho. American Antiquity 63: 437–456.
Greenhill, B. (1976). Archaeology of the Boat, Wesleyan University Press, Middletown, CT.
Greenwood, P. (1968). Fish remains. In Wendorf, F. (ed.), The Prehistory of Nubia, Vol. 2, Southern Methodist University Press, Dallas, pp. 100–109.
Greenwood, P. H., and Todd, E. J. (1970). Fish remains from Olduvai. In Leakey, L. S. B., and Savage, R. J. G. (eds.), Fossil Vertebrates of Africa, Academic Press, New York.
Groube, L., Chappell, J., Muke, J., and Price, D. (1986). A 40,000 year old human occupation site at Huon Peninsula, Papua New Guinea. Nature 324: 453–455.
Haggarty, J. C., Wooley, C. B., Erlandson, J. M., and Crowell, A. (1991). The 1990 Exxon Cultural Resource Program: Site Protection and Maritime Cultural Ecology in Prince William Sound and the Gulf of Alaska, Exxon Shipping Company and Exxon Company, Anchorage.
Harris, J. W. K., Williamson, P. G., Morris, P. J., de Heinzelin, J., Verniers, J., Helgren, D., Bellomo, R. V., Laden, G., Spang, T. W., Stewart, K., and Tappen, M. J. (1990). Archaeology of the Lusso beds. In Boaz, N. T. (ed.), Evolution of Environments and Hominidae in the African Western Rift Valley, Virginia Museum of Natural History, Martinsville, pp. 237–272.
Hayden, B. (1981). Research and development in the Stone Age: Technological transitions among hunter-gatherers. Current Anthropology 22: 519–531.
Heller, C. A., and Scott, E. M. (1967). The Alaska Dietary Survey 1956-61, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, DC.
Henshilwood, C., and Sealy, J. (1997). Bone artefacts from the Middle Stone Age at Blombos Cave, Southern Cape, South Africa. Current Anthropology 38: 890–895.
Hewes, G. W. (1968). A new ecological model for hominization. Proceedings of the International Congress of Anthropological and Ethnological Sciences(Tokyo) 3.
Hildebrandt, W. R., and Jones, T. L. (1992). Evolution of marine mammal hunting: A view from the California and Oregon coasts. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 11: 360–401.
Hogg, T. C., Smith, C. L., and Davis, W. A. (1971). Man in the Marine Environment, Marine Anthropological Research Unit Report 1, Oregon State University, Corvallis.
Howe, B. (1967). The Palaeolithic of Tangier, Morocco: Excavations at Cape Ashakar, 1939-1947, Bulletin 22, American School of Prehistoric Research, Cambridge.
Howe, B., and Movius, H. L., Jr. (1947). A Stone Age Cave Site in Tangier, Papers 28(1), Peabody Museum of American Archaeology, Harvard University, Cambridge.
Irwin, G. (1992). The Prehistoric Exploration and Colonisation of the Pacific, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
Isaac, G. (1971). The diet of early man. Scientific American 221(3): 146–162.
Johnson, J. R., Stafford, T. W., Ajie, H. O., and Morris, D. P. (2000). Arlington Springs revisited. Proceedings of the Fifth Channel Islands Symposium, Santa Barbara Museum of Natural History, Santa Barbara, pp. 541–545.
Johnston, H., Clark, P., and White, J. P. (eds.) (1998). Willandra Lakes: Peoples and palaeoenvironments. Archaeology in Oceania 33(3): 105–231.
Johnstone, P. (1980). The Sea-Craft of Prehistory, Harvard University Press, Cambridge.
Jones, R., and Allen, J. (1978). Caveat excavator: A sea bird midden on Steep Head Island, NorthWest Tasmania. Australian Archaeology 8: 142–145.
Jones, T. L. (1991). Marine resource value and the priority of coastal settlement: A California perspective. American Antiquity 56: 419–443.
Jones, T. L., and Hildebrandt, W. R. (1995). Reasserting a prehistoric tragedy of the commons: Reply to Lyman. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 14: 78–98.
Jones, T. L., and Richman, J. R. (1995). On mussels: Mytilus californianusas a prehistoric resource. North American Archaeologist 16: 33–58.
Keefer, D. K., deFrance, S. D., Moseley, M. E., Richardson, J. B., III, Satterlee, D. R., and Day-Lewis, A. (1998). Early maritime economy and El Nino events at Quebrada Tacahuay, Peru. Science 281: 1833–1835.
Kelly, R. L. (1995). The Foraging Spectrum: Diversity in Hunter-Gatherer Lifeways, Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, DC.
Kelly, R. L. (1996). Foraging and fishing. In Plew, M. G. (ed.), Prehistoric Hunter-Gatherer Fishing Strategies, Boise State University, Boise, pp. 208–214.
Kent, S. (1989). Cross-cultural perceptions of farmers as hunters and the value of meat. In Kent, S. (ed.), Farmers and Hunters: The Implications of Sedentism, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 1–17.
Kersten, A. M. P. (1991). Birds from the Palaeolithic rock shelter of Ksar 'Akil, Lebanon. Paléorient 17: 99–116.
Klein, R. G. (1995). Anatomy, behavior, and modern human origins. Journal of World Prehistory 9: 167–241.
Klein, R. G. (1998). Why anatomically modern people did not disperse from Africa 100,000 years ago. In Akazawa, T., Aoki, K., and Bar-Yosef, O. (eds.), Neandertals and Modern Humans in Western Asia, Plenum Press, New York, pp. 509–521.
Klein, R. G. (1999). The Human Career: Human Biological and Cultural Origins, 2nd edn., Chicago University Press, Chicago.
Klein, R. G., Avery, G., Cruz-Uribe, K., Halkett, D., Hart, T., Milo, R. G., and Volman, T. P. (1999a). Duinefontein 2: An Acheulean site in the western Cape Province of South Africa. Journal of Human Evolution 37: 153–190.
Klein, R. G., and Cruz-Uribe, K. (2000). Middle and Later Stone Age large mammal and tortoise remains from Die Kelders Cave 1, Western Cape Province, South Africa. Journal of Human Evolution 38: 169–195.
Klein, R. G., Cruz-Uribe, K., Halkett, D., Hart, T., and Parkington, J. E. (1999b). Paleoenvironmental and human behavioral implications of the Boegoeberg 1 Late Pleistocene hyena den, northern Cape Province, South Africa. Quaternary Research 52: 393–403.
Klein, R. G., and Scott, K. (1986). Re-analysis of faunal assemblages from the Haua Fteah and other Late Quaternary sites in Cyrenaican Libya. Journal of Archaeological Science 13: 515–542.
Koloseike, A. (1968). The logic of midden analysis with respect to shell. University of California Archaeological Survey Annual Report, Los Angeles, Vol. 11, pp. 143–162.
Kraft, J. C., Bellknap, D. F., and Kayan, I. (1983). Potentials of discovery of human occupation sites on the continental shelves and nearshore coastal zone. In Masters, P. M., and Flemming, N. C. (eds.), Quaternary Coastlines and Marine Archaeology, Academic Press, New York, pp. 87–120.
Krings, M., Stone, A., Schmitz, R.W., Krainitzki, H., Stoneking, M., and Paabo, S. (1997). Neandertal DNA sequences and the origin of modern humans. Cell 90: 19–30.
Kuhn, S. L., and Stiner, M. C. (1998). The earliest Aurignacian of Riparo Mochi (Liguria, Italy). Current Anthropology 39(Supplement): 175–189.
Lampert, R. J. (1971). Burrill Lake and Currarong, Terra Australis 1, Australian National University, Canberra.
Leakey, M. D. (1971). Olduvai Gorge, Vol. 3: Excavations in Beds I and II, 1960–1963, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
Leakey, M. D. (1994). Olduvai Gorge, Vol. 5: Excavations in Beds III, IV and the Masek Beds, 1968– 1971, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
Lightfoot, K. (1993). Long-term developments in complex hunter-gatherer societies: Recent perspectives from the Pacific Coast of North America. Journal of Archaeological Research 1: 167–201.
Limp, W. F., and Reidhead, V. A. (1979). An economic evaluation of the potential of fish utilization in riverine environments. American Antiquity 44: 70–77.
Lindstrom, S. (1996). Great Basin fisherfolk: Optimal diet breadth modeling the Truckee River aboriginal subsistence fishery. In Plew, M. G. (ed.), Prehistoric Hunter-Gatherer Fishing Strategies, Boise State University, Boise, pp. 114–179.
Llagostera, A. (1979). 9,700 years of maritime subsistence on the Pacific: An analysis by means of bioindicators in the north of Chile. American Antiquity 44: 309–324.
Llagostera, A. (1992). Early occupations and the emergence of fishermen on the Pacific Coast of South America. Andean Past 3: 87–109.
López, S. R. (1988). La Cueva de Ambrosio (Almeria, Spain) y su posición cronoestratigráfica en el Medeterraneo Occidental, BAR International Series 462, Vol. 1, Oxford.
Lyman, R. L. (1991). Prehistory of the Oregon Coast, Academic Press, New York.
Lyman, R. L. (1995). On the evolution of marine mammal hunting on the west coast of North America. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 14: 45–77.
MacNeish, S. (1971). Early man in the Andes. Scientific American 224(4): 36–46.
Marean, C. W., Goldberg, P., Avery, G., Grine, F. E., and Klein, R. G. (2000). Middle Stone Age stratigraphy and excavations at Die Kelders Cave 1 (Western Cape Province, South Africa): The 1992, 1993, and 1995 field seasons. Journal of Human Evolution 38: 7–42.
Masters, P. M., and Flemming, N. C. (1983). Quaternary Coastlines and Marine Archaeology: Towards the Prehistory of Land Bridges and Continental Shelves, Academic Press, New York.
Matsu'ura, S. (1996). A chronological review of Pleistocene human remains from the Japanese archipelago. In Omoto, K. (ed.), Interdisciplinary Perspectives on the Origins of the Japanese, International Research Center for Japanese Studies, Kyoto, pp. 181–197.
McBurney, C. B. M. (1967). The Haua Fteah (Cyrenaica) and the Stone Age of the Southeast Mediterranean, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
McCartney, A. P. (1975). Maritime adaptations in cold archipelagoes: An analysis of environment and culture in the Aleutian and other island chains. In Fitzhugh, W. (ed.), Prehistoric Maritime Adaptations of the Circumpolar Zone, Mouton, The Hague, pp. 281–338.
Meehan, B. (1977). Man does not live by calories alone: The role of shellfish in a coastal cuisine. In Allen, J., Golson, J., and Jones, R. (eds.), Sunda and Sahul, Academic Press, New York, pp. 493–531.
Meehan, B. (1982). Shell Bed to Shell Midden, Australian Institute of Aboriginal Studies, Canberra.
Meighan, C. W. (1969). Molluscs as food remains in archaeological sites. In Brothwell, D. R., and Higgs, E. S. (eds.), Science in Archaeology, Thames and Hudson, London, pp. 415–422.
Mellars, P. (1998). Neanderthals, modern humans, and the archaeological evidence for language. In Jablonski, N. G., and Aiello, L. C. (eds.), The Origin and Diversification of Language, Memoirs 24, California Academy of Sciences, San Francisco, pp. 89–115.
Meylan, P. (1990). Fossil turtles from the Upper Semliki, Zaire. In Boaz, N. T. (ed.), Evolution of Environments and Hominidae in the African Western Rift Valley, Memoir 1, Virginia Museum of Natural History, Martinsville, pp. 163–170.
Minor, R., and Grant,W. (1996). Earthquake-induced subsidence and burial of Late Holocene archaeological sites, northern Oregon coast. American Antiquity 61: 772–781.
Morgan, L. H. (1877). Ancient Society or Researches in the Lines of Human Progress From Savagery Through Barbarism to Civilization, World Publishing, New York.
Morse, K. (1988). Mandu Mandu Creek rockshelter: Pleistocene human coastal occupation of North West Cape, Western Australia. Archaeology in Oceania 23(3): 81–88.
Morwood, M. J., Aziz, F., O'Sullivan, P., Nasruddin, Hobbs, D. R., and Raza, A. (1999). Archaeological and palaeontological research in Central Flores, East Indonesia: Results of fieldwork 1997–98.Antiquity 73: 273–286.
Morwood, M. J., O'Sullivan, P. B., Aziz, F., and Raza, A. (1998). Fission-track ages of stone tools and fossils on the East Indonesian island of Flores. Nature 392: 173–176.
Moseley, M. E. (1975). The Maritime Foundations of Andean Civilization, Cummings, Menlo Park.
Moss, M. L. (1989). Archaeology and Cultural Ecology of the Prehistoric Angoon Tlingit, Ph.D. Dissertation, Department of Anthropology, University of California, Santa Barbara, University Microfilms, Ann Arbor.
Moss, M. L. (1993). Shellfish, gender, and status on the Northwest Coast: Reconciling archaeological, ethnographic, and ethnohistorical records of the Tlingit. American Anthropologist 95: 631–652.
Moss, M. L. (1998). Northern Northwest Coast regional overview. Arctic Anthropology 35: 88–111.
Moss, M. L., and Erlandson, J. M. (1995). Reflections on North American Pacific Coast prehistory. Journal of World Prehistory 9: 1–45.
Nadel, D., and Werker, E. (1999). The oldest ever brush hut plant remains from Ohalo II, Jordan Valley, Israel (19,000 BP). Antiquity 73: 755–764.
Negris, P. (1904). Vestiges antiques submergés. Athenischer Mitteilungen 29: 340–363.
Noli, D., and Avery, G. (1988). Protein poisoning and coastal subsistence. Journal of Archaeological Science 15: 395–401.
Nuñez, L., Varla, J., Casamiquela, R., and Villagran, C. (1994). Reconstrucción multidisciplinaria de la ocupación prehistórica de Quero, centro de Chile. Latin American Antiquity 5: 99–118.
O'Connor, S. (1989). New radiocarbon dates from Koolan Island, West Kimberley, WA. Australian Archaeology 28: 92–103.
Oda, S. (1990). A review of archaeological research in the Izu and Ogasawara islands. Man and Culture in Oceania 6: 53–79.
Okladnikov, A. P. (1965). The Soviet Far East in Antiquity: An Archaeological and Historical Study of the Maritime Region of the U.S.S.R., Vol. 6, Arctic Institute of North America, Translations from Russian Sources.
Orr, P. C. (1968). Prehistory of Santa Rosa Island, Santa Barbara Museum of Natural History, Santa Barbara.
Osborn, A. (1977a). Strandloopers, mermaids, and other fairy tales: Ecological determinants of marine resource utilization—the Peruvian case. In Binford, L. R. (ed.), For Theory Building in Archaeology, Academic Press, New York, pp. 157–205.
Osborn, A. (1977b). Aboriginal Exploitation of Marine Food Resources, Ph.D. Dissertation, Department of Anthropology, University of New Mexico, University Microfilms, Ann Arbor.
Palsson, G. (1988). Hunter-gatherers of the sea. In Ingold, T., Riches, D., and Woodburn, J. (eds.), Hunters and Gatherers 1: History, Evolution and Social Change, Berg, New York, pp. 189–204.
Parkington, J. (1981). The effects of environmental change on the scheduling of visits to the Elands Bay Cave, Cape Province, S. A. In Hodder, I., Isaac, G., and Hammond, N. (eds.), Patterns of the Past, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 341–359.
Parmalee, P. W., and Klippel, W. E. (1974). Freshwater mussels as a prehistoric food resource. American Antiquity 39: 421–434.
Perlman, S. (1980). An optimum diet model, coastal variability, and hunter-gatherer behavior. Advances in Archaeological Method and Theory 3: 257–310.
Pope, G. (1989). Bamboo and human evolution. Natural History(October): 49–57.
Price, T. D. (1995). Some perspectives on prehistoric coastal adaptations and those who study them. In Fischer, A. (ed.), Man and Sea in the Mesolithic, Oxbow Monograph 53, Oxford, pp. 423–424.
Quilter, J., and Stocker, T. (1983). Subsistence economies and the origins of Andean complex societies. American Anthropologist 85: 545–562.
Raban, A. (1983). Submerged prehistoric sites off the Mediterranean coast of Israel. In Masters, P. M., and Flemming, N. C. (eds.), Quaternary Coastlines and Marine Archaeology, Academic Press, New York, pp. 215–232.
Raymond, S. (1981). The maritime foundation of Andean civilization: A reconsideration of the evidence. American Antiquity 46: 806–821.
Reese, D. (1998). Middle Paleolithic shells from Ras el-Kelb. In Copeland, L., and Moloney, N. (eds.), The Mousterian Site of Ras el-Kelb, Lebanon, BAR International Series 706, Oxford, p. 67.
Reeves, R. R., Stewart, B. S., and Leatherwood, S. (1992). The Sierra Club Handbook of Seals and Sirenians, Sierra Club Books, San Francisco.
Renfrew, C., and Bahn, P. (1996). Archaeology: Theories, Methods, and Practice, Thames and Hudson, London.
Richardson, J. B., III (1981). Modeling the development of sedentary maritime economies on the coast of Peru: A preliminary statement. Annals of Carnegie Museum of Natural History 50(5): 139–150.
Richardson, J. B., III (1998). Looking in the right places: Pre-5000 B.P. maritime adaptations in Peru and the changing environment. Revista de Arqueología Americana 15: 33–56.
Rick, T. C., and Erlandson, J. M. (2000). Early Holocene fishing strategies on the California coast: Evidence from CA-SBA–2057. Journal of Archaeological Science 27: 621–633.
Rick, T. C., Erlandson, J. M., and Vellanoweth, R. (in press). Paleocoastal marine fishing on the Pacific Coast of the Americas: Perspectives from Daisy Cave, California. American Antiquity.
Roberts, R. G., Jones, R., and Smith, M. A. (1990). Thermoluminescence dating of a 50,000 year old human occupation site in northern Australia. Nature 345: 153–156.
Roche, J., and Texier, J.-P. (1976). Decouverte de restes humains dans un niveau aterien superieur de la grotte des Contrebandiers, a Temara (Maroc). Comptes Rendus des Seances de l'Academie des Sciences 282: 45–47.
Roe, D. A. (1994). Summary and overview. In Leakey, M. D. (ed.), Olduvai Gorge, Vol. 5: Excavations in Beds III, IV and the Masek Beds, 1968–1971, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 299–309.
Rolland, N. (1998). The Lower Paleolithic settlement of Eurasia, with special reference to Europe. In Petraglia, M. D., and Korisettar, R. (eds.), Early Human Behavior in Global Context, Routledge, London, pp. 187–220.
Roosevelt, A. C., Lima da Costa, M., Lopes Machado, C., Michab, M., Mercier, N., Valladas, H., Feathers, J., Barnett, W., Imazio da Silveira, M., Henderson, A., Sliva, J., Chernoff, B., Reese, D. S., Holman, J. A., Toth, N., and Schick, K. (1996). Paleoindian cave dwellers in the Amazon: The peopling of the Americas. Science 272: 373–384.
Roubet, F. (1969). Le niveau Aterian dans la stratigraphie cotiere a l'ouest d'Alger. Paleoecology of Africa 4: 124–128.
Sandweiss, D. H., McInnis, H., Burger, R. L., Cano, A., Ojeda, B., Paredes, R., Sandweiss, M. D. C., and Glascock, M. (1998). Quebrada Jaguay: Early South American maritime adaptations. Science 281: 1830–1833.
Sandweiss, D. H., Richardson, J. B., III, Reitz, E. J., Hsu, T., and Feldman, R. (1989). Early maritime adaptations in the Andes: Preliminary studies at the Ring site, Peru. In Rice, D. S., Stanish, C., and Scarr, P. R. (eds.), Ecology, Settlement, and History of the Osmore Drainage, Peru, BAR International Series 545, Oxford, pp. 35–84.
Sanger, D. (1995). Mesolithic maritime adaptations: The view from North America. In Fischer, A. (ed.), Man and Sea in the Mesolithic: Coastal Settlement Above and Below Present Sea Level, Oxbow Monograph 53, Oxford, pp. 335–349.
Sauer, C. O. (1962). Seashore—primitive home of man? Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 106: 41–47.
Scott, G. R., and Turner, C. G., II (1997). The Anthropology of Modern Human Teeth: Dental Morphology and Its Variation in Recent Human Populations, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
Shackleton, J. C. (1988). Reconstructing past shorelines as an approach to determining factors affecting shellfish collecting in the prehistoric past. In Bailey, G. N., and Parkington, J. (eds.), The Archaeology of Prehistoric Coastlines, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 11–21.
Shackleton, J. C., and van Andel, T. H. (1980). Prehistoric shell assemblages from Franchthi Cave. Nature 288: 357–359.
Shackleton, J. C., van Andel, T. H., and Runnels, C. N. (1984). Coastal paleogeography of the central and western Mediterranean during the last 125,000 years and its archaeological implications. Journal of Field Archaeology 11: 307–314.
Shepard, F. P. (1964). Sea level changes in the past 6,000 years: Possible archaeological significance. Science 143: 574–576.
Sidwell, V. D. (1981). Chemical and Nutritional Composition of Finfishes, Whales, Crustaceans, Mollusks, and Their Products, NOAA Technical Memorandum NMFS F/SEC-11, U.S. Department of Commerce, Washington, DC.
Simms, S. R. (1987). Behavioral Ecology and Hunter-Gatherer Foraging: An Example From the Great Basin, BAR International Series 381, Oxford.
Singer, R., Gladfelter, B. G., and Wymer, J. J. (1993). The Lower Paleolithic Site at Hoxne, England, University of Chicago Press, Chicago.
Singer, R., and Wymer, J. (1982). The Middle Stone Age at Klasies River Mouth in South Africa, University of Chicago Press, Chicago.
Singer, R., Wymer, J. J., Gladfelter, B. G., and Wolff, R. G. (1973). Excavation of the Clactonian industry at the Golf Course, Clacton-on-Sea, Essex. Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society 39: 6–74.
Slocum, S. (1975). Woman the gatherer: Male bias in anthropology. In Reiter, R. R. (ed.), Toward an Anthropology of Women, Monthly Review Press, New York, pp. 36–50.
Smith, A. B., and Kinahan, J. (1983). The invisible whale. World Archaeology 16: 89–97.
Smyth, W. H. (1854). The Mediterranean, John Murray, London.
Sondaar, P. Y., van den Bergh, G. D., Mubroto, B., Aziz, F., de Vos, J., and Batu, U. L. (1994). Middle Pleistocene faunal turnover and colonization of Flores (Indonesia) by Homo erectus. Comptes Residues de la Academie des Sciences Paris 319: 1255–1262.
Souville, G. (1973). Atlas prehistorique du Maroc 1: Le Maroc Atlantique, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Paris.
Stewart, K. M. (1994). Early hominid utilisation of fish resources and implications for seasonality and behaviour. Journal of Human Evolution 27(pp1–3): 229–245.
Stiner, M. C. (1994). Honor Among Thieves: A Zooarchaeological Study of Neandertal Ecology, Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ.
Stiner, M. C. (1999). Paleolithic mollusc exploitation at Riparo Mochi (Balzi Rossi, Italy): Food and ornaments from the Aurignacian through Epigravettian. Antiquity 73: 735–754.
Storey, D. A., Guy, J. A., Burnett, B. A., Freeman, M. D., Rose, J. C., Steele, D. G., Olive, B. W., and Reinhard, K. J. (1990). The Archeology and Bioarcheology of the Gulf Coastal Plain, Vol. 1, Research Series No. 38, Arkansas Archeological Survey, Fayetteville.
Stothert, K. (1985). The preceramic Las Vegas culture of coastal Peru. American Antiguity 50: 613–637.
Straus, L. G. (1976–1977). The Upper Paleolithic cave site of Altamira (Santander, Spain). Quaternaria 19: 135–147.
Straus, L. G. (1990). The Early Upper Palaeolithic of southwest Europe: Cro-Magnon adaptations in the Iberian peripheries, 40 000–20 000 BP. In Mellars, P. (ed.), The Emergence of Modern Humans: An Archaeological Perspective, Cornell University Press, Ithaca, pp. 276–302.
Straus, L. G., Altuna, J., Clark, G. A., Gonzalez Morales, M., Laville, H., Leroi-Gourhan, A., Menendez de la Hoz, M., and Ortea, J. A. (1981). Paleoecology at La Riera (Asturias, Spain). Current Anthropology 22: 655–682.
Straus, L. G., Altuna, J., and Ortea, J. (1980). Ice Age subsistence in northern Spain. Scientific American 242: 142–152.
Straus, L. G., Bischoff, J. L., and Carbonell, E. (1993). A review of the Middle to Upper Paleolithic transition in Iberia. Prehistoire Europeenne 3: 11–26.
Straus, L. G., and Clark, G. A. (1983). Further reflections on adaptive change in Cantabrian prehistory. In Bailey, G. N. (ed.), Hunter-Gatherer Economy in Prehistory: A European Perspective, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 166–167.
Stright, M. J. (1990). Archaeological sites on the North American continental shelf. Geological Society of America Centennial 4: 439–465.
Stringer, C. (2000). Coasting out of Africa. Nature 405: 24–26.
Stuart, A. J., Wolff, R. G., Lister, A. M., Singer, R., and Egginton, J. M. (1993). Fossil vertebrates. In Singer, R., Gladfelter, B. G., and Wymer, J. J. (eds.), The Lower Paleolithic Site at Hoxne, England, University of Chicago Press, Chicago, pp. 163–206.
Tankard, A. J., and Schweitzer, F. R. (1974). The geology of Die Kelders Cave and environs: A paleoenvironmental study. South African Journal of Science 70: 365–369.
Thorne, A., Grun, R., Mortimer, G., Spooner, N. A., Simpson, J. J., McCulloch, M., Taylor, L., and Curnoe, D. (1999). Australia's oldest human remains: Age of the Lake Mungo 3 skeleton. Journal of Human Evolution 36: 591–612.
Townsend, J. B. (1980). Ranked societies of the Alaskan Pacific Rim. In Kotani, Y., and Workman, W. B. (eds.), Alaska Native Culture and History, Senri Ethnological Studies 4, Osaka, pp. 123–156.
Tveskov, M. A. (2000). The Coos and Coquille: A Northwest Coast Historical Anthropology, Ph.D. Dissertation, Department of Anthropology, University of Oregon, Eugene.
Uhle, M. (1907). The Emeryville shellmound. American Archaeology and Ethnology (Berkeley) 7: 1–106.
van Andel, T. H. (1989). Late Pleistocene sea levels and human exploitation of the shore and shelf of southern South Africa. Journal of Field Archaeology 16: 133–155.
Vermeersch, P. M., and Van Peer, P. (1988). The early Upper Paleolithic in Egypt. In Hoffecker, J. F., and Wolf, C. A. (eds.), The Early Upper Paleolithic: Evidence From Europe and the Near East, BAR International Series 437, Oxford, pp. 1–22.
Veth, P. (1993). The Aboriginal occupation of the Montebello Islands, northwest Australia. Australian Aboriginal Studies 2: 39–47.
Villa, P. (1983). Terra Amata and the Middle Pleistocene Archaeological Record of Southern France, Publications in Anthropology 13, University of California, Berkeley.
Vogel, J. C., Wintle, A. G., and Woodborn, S. M. (1999). Luminescence dating of coastal sands: Overcoming changes in environmental dose rate. Journal of Archaeological Science 26: 729–733.
Volman, T. (1978). Early archaeological evidence for shellfish collecting. Science 201: 911–913.
Waechter, J. D. (1951). Excavations at Gorham's Cave, Gibraltar. Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society 17: 83–92.
Waechter, J. D. (1964). The excavation of Gorham's Cave, Gibraltar, 1951–54. Bulletin of the Institute of Archaeology 4: 189–221.
Waechter, J., and Flemming, N. C. (1962). Underwater caves of Gibraltar. In The Undersea Challenge, Proceedings of the SecondWorld Congress of Underwater Activities, BSAC, London, pp. 98–106.
Walter, R. C., Buffler, R. T., Bruggemann, J. H., Guillaume, M. M. M., Berhe, S. M., Negasi, B., Libsekal, Y., Cheng, H., Edwards, R. L., von Cosel, R., Neraudeau, D., and Gagnon, M. (2000). Early human occupation of the Red Sea coast of Eritrea during the last interglacial. Nature 405: 65–69.
Waselkov, G. A. (1987). Shellfish gathering and shell midden archaeology. Advances in Archaeological Method and Theory 10: 93–210.
Washburn, S. L., and Lancaster, C. S. (1968). The evolution of hunting. In Lee, R. B., and DeVore, I. (eds.), Man the Hunter, Aldine, Chicago, pp. 293–303.
Watt, B. K., and Merrill, A. L. (1975). Composition of Foods, Agriculture Handbook 8, United States Department of Agriculture, Washington, DC.
Wendorf, F. (1968). Late Upper Paleolithic sites in Egyptian Nubia. In Wendorf, F. (ed.), The Prehistory of Nubia, Southern Methodist University Press, Dallas, pp. 791–953.
White, R. (1993). Technological and social dimensions of Aurignacian-age body ornaments across Europe. In Knecht, H., Pike-Tay, A., and White, R. (eds.), Before Lascaux: The Complex Record of the Early Upper Paleolithic, CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, pp. 277–300.
Wickler, S., and Spriggs, M. (1988). Pleistocene human occupation of the Solomon Islands, Melanesia. Antiquity 62: 703–707.
Wilson, D. J. (1981). Of maize and men: A critique of the maritime hypothesis of state origins on the coast of Peru. American Anthropologist 83: 93–120.
Wing, E. S. (1977). Factors influencing exploitation of marine resources. In Benson, E. P. (ed.), The Sea in the Pre-Columbian World, Dumbarton Oaks, Washington, DC., pp. 47–66.
Wolf, C. (1988). Analysis of faunal remains from Early Upper Paleolithic sites in the Levant. In Hoffecker, J., and Wolf, C. A. (eds.), The Early Upper Paleolithic: Evidence From Europe and the Near East, BAR International Series 437, Oxford, pp. 73–95.
Workman, W. B., and McCartney, A. P. (1998). Coast to coast: Prehistoric maritime cultures in the North Pacific. Arctic Anthropology 35: 361–370.
Wreschner, E. E. (1983). The submerged Neolithic village “Newe Yam” on the Israeli Mediterranean coast. In Masters, P. M., and Flemming, N. C. (eds.), Quaternary Coastlines and Marine Archaeology, Academic Press, New York, pp. 325–333.
Wulsin, F. R. (1941). The Prehistoric Archaeology of Northwest Africa, Paper 19, Peabody Museum of American Archaeology and Ethnology, Harvard University, Cambridge.
Yellen, J. E. (1998). Barbed bone points: Tradition and continuity in Saharan and sub-Saharan Africa. African Archaeological Review 15: 173–198.
Yellen, J. E., Brooks, A. S., Cornelissen, E., Mehlman, M. J., and Stewart, K. (1995). A Middle Stone Age worked bone industry from Katanda, Upper Semliki Valley, Zaire. Science 268: 553–556.
Yesner, D. R. (1980). Maritime hunter-gatherers: Ecology and prehistory. Current Anthropology 21: 727–735.
Yesner, D. R. (1987). Life in the “Garden of Eden”: Constraints of marine diets for human societies. In Harris, M., and Ross, E. (eds.), Food and Evolution, Temple University Press, Philadelphia, pp. 285–310.
Yesner, D. R. (1996). Human adaptation at the Pleistocene-Holocene boundary (circa 13,000 to 8,000 BP) in eastern Beringia. In Straus, L. G., Eriksen, B. V., Erlandson, J. M., and Yesner, D. R. (eds.), Humans at the End of the Ice Age: The Archaeology of the Pleistocene-Holocene Transition, Plenum Press, New York, pp. 253–276.
Yesner, D. R. (1998). Origins and development of maritime adaptations in the northwest Pacific region of North America: A zooarchaeological perspective. Arctic Anthropology 35: 204–222.
Zeuner, F. E., and Sutcliffe, A. (1964). Preliminary report on the mammalia of Gorham's Cave, Gibraltar. Bulletin of the Institute of Archaeology 4: 213–216.
Zihlman, A. (1997). The Paleolithic glass ceiling: Women in human evolution. In Hager, L. (ed.), Women in Human Evolution, Routledge, London, pp. 91–113.
BIBLIOGRAPHY OF RECENT LITERATURE
Ames, K. M., and Maschner, H. D. G. (1999). Peoples of the Northwest Coast: Their Archaeology and Prehistory, Thames and Hudson, London.
Arnold, J. E. (1995). Transportation innovation and social complexity among maritime hunter-gatherer societies. American Anthropologist 97: 733–747.
Arnold, J. E., Colten, R. H., and Pletka, S. (1997). Contexts of cultural change in insular California. American Antiquity 62: 300–318.
Bernick, K. (ed.) (1998). Hidden Dimensions: The Cultural Significance of Wetland Archaeology, University of British Columbia Press, Vancouver.
Bird, D. W., and Bliege Bird, R. L. (1997). Contemporary shellfish gathering strategies among the Meriam of the Torres Strait Islands, Australia: Testing predictions of a Central Place Foraging Model. Journal of Archaeological Science 24: 39–63.
Borrero, L. A., Zarate, M., Miotti, L., and Massone, M. (1997). The Pleistocene-Holocene transition in the southern cone of South America. Quaternary International 49/50: 191–199.
Broughton, J. M. (1997). Widening diet breadth, declining foraging efficiency, and prehistoric harvest pressure: Icthyofaunal evidence from the Emeryville shellmound, California. Antiquity 71: 845–862.
Broughton, J. M. (1999). Resource Depression and Intensification During the Late Holocene, San Francisco Bay: Evidence From the Emeryville Shellmound Vertebrate Fauna, University of California Anthropological Records 32, University of California Press, Berkeley.
Byram, R. S. (1998). Fishing weirs in Oregon coast estuaries. In Bernick, K. (ed.), Hidden Dimensions: The Cultural Significance of Wetland Archaeology, University of British Columbia Press, Vancouver, pp. 199–219.
Cannon, A. (2000). Settlement and sea levels on the central coast of British Columbia: Evidence from shell midden cores. American Antiquity 65: 67–77.
Claassen, C. (2000). Quantifying shell: Comments on Mason, Peterson, and Tiffany. American Antiquity 65: 415–418.
Earle, S. A. (1995). Sea Change: A Message of the Oceans, Fawcett Columbine, New York.
Erlandson, J. M., and Glassow, M. A. (eds.) (1997). Archaeology of the California Coast During the Middle Holocene, Institute of Archaeology, University of California, Los Angeles.
Erlandson, J. M., and Jones, T. L. (eds.) (in press). Catalysts to Complexity: The Late Holocene on the California Coast, Institute of Archaeology, University of California, Los Angeles.
Erlandson, J. M., and Moss, M. L. (1999). The systematic use of radiocarbon dating in archaeological surveys in coastal and other erosional environments. American Antiquity 64: 431–443.
Faught, M. K. (1996). Clovis Origins and Underwater Prehistoric Archaeology in Northwestern Florida, Ph.D. Dissertation, Department of Anthropology, University of Arizona, Tucson.
Faught, M., and Carter, B. (1997). Early human occupation and environmental change in northwestern Florida. Quaternary International 49/50: 67–176.
Fedje, D. W., McSporran, J. B., and Mason, A. R. (1996). Early Holocene archaeology and paleoecology at the Arrow Creek sites in Gwaii Haanas. Arctic Anthropology 33: 116–142.
Fischer, A. (1997). People and the sea—settlement and fishing along the mesolithic coasts. In Pedersen, L., Fischer, A., and Aaby, B. (eds.), The Danish Storebaelt Since the Ice Age, A/S Storebaelt Fixed Link, Copenhagen, pp. 63–77.
Flemming, N. C. (1996). Sea level, neotectonics, and changes in coastal settlements: Threat and response. In Rice, E. E. (ed.), The Sea and History, Sutton, Stroud, pp. 23–52.
Gifford-Gonzalez, D., Stewart, K. M., and Rybczynski, N. (1999). Human activities and site formation at modern lake margin foraging camps in Kenya. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 18: 397–440.
Glassow, M. A. (1996). Purisimeño Chumash Prehistory: Maritime Adaptations Along the Southern California Coast, Harcourt Brace, Orlando.
Glassow, M. A. (2000). Weighing vs. counting shellfish remains: A comment on Mason, Peterson, and Tiffany. American Antiquity 65: 407–414.
Hildebrandt, W. R., and Levulett, V. A. (1997). Middle Holocene adaptations on the northern California coast: Terrestrial resource productivity and its influence on the use of marine foods. In Erlandson, J. M., and Glassow, M. A. (eds.), Archaeology of the California Coast During the Middle Holocene, Institute of Archaeology, University of California, Los Angeles, pp. 143–150.
Jerardino, A. (1997). Changes in shellfish species composition and mean shell size from a Late-Holocene record of the west coast of Southern Africa. Journal of Archaeological Science 24: 1031–1044.
Jerardino, A. (1998). Excavations at Pancho's kitchen midden, western Cape coast, South Africa: Further observations on the Megamidden period. South African Archaeological Bulletin 53: 16–25.
Josenhans, H. W., Fedje, D. W., Pienitz, R., and Southon, J. R. (1997). Early humans and rapidly changing Holocene sea levels in the Queen Charlotte Islands—Hecate Strait, British Columbia, Canada. Science 277: 71–74.
Kennett, D. J., Ingram, B. L., Erlandson, J. M., and Walker, P. L. (1997). Evidence for temporal fluctuations in marine radiocarbon reservoir ages in the Santa Barbara Channel, Southern California. Journal of Archaeological Science 24: 1051–1059.
Kennett, D. J., and Kennett, J. P. (2000). Competitive and cooperative responses to climatic instability in coastal southern California. American Antiquity 65: 379–395.
Klein, R. G., and Cruz-Uribe, K. (1996). Exploitation of large bovids and seals at Middle and Later Stone Age sites in South Africa. Journal of Human Evolution 31: 315–334.
Leavesley, M., and Allen, J. (1998). Dates, disturbance and artefact distributions: Another analysis of Buang Merabak, a Pleistocene site on New Ireland, Papua New Guinea. Archaeology in Oceania 33: 63–82.
Lewis, R. B. (2000). Sea-level rise and subsidence effects on Gulf Coast archaeological site distributions. American Antiquity 65: 525–541.
Losey, R. J. (ed.) (2000). Changing Landscapes, Proceedings of the 3rd Annual Coquille Cultural Preservation Conference, 1999, Coquille Indian Tribe, North Bend, Oregon.
Madsen, D. B., and Schmitt, D. N. (1998). Mass collecting and the diet breadth model: A Great Basin example. Journal of Archaeological Science 25: 445–455.
Matson, R. G., and Coupland, G. (1995). The Prehistory of the Northwest Coast, Academic Press, New York.
McCartney, A. P., Okada, H., Okada, A., and Workman, W. (eds.) (1998). North Pacific and Bering Sea Maritime Societies: The Archaeology of Prehistoric and Early Historic Coastal Peoples. Arctic Anthropology 35: 1–370.
Momber, G. (2000). Drowned and deserted: A submerged prehistoric landscape in the Solent, England. Nautical Archaeology 29: 86–99.
Moss, M. L., and Erlandson, J. M. (1998). Early Holocene adaptations on the southern Northwest Coast. Journal of California and Great Basin Anthropology 20: 13–25.
Noah, A. C. (1998). Prehistoric fishing on the San Diego coast. Pacific Coast Archaeological Society Quarterly 34(2): 5–31.
Pedersen, L., Fischer, A., and Aaby, B. (eds.) (1997). The Danish Storebaelt Since the Ice Age, A/S Storebaelt Fixed Link, Copenhagen.
Plew, M. G. (ed.) (1996). Prehistoric Hunter-Gatherer Fishing Strategies, Boise State University, Boise.
Porcasi, J. F., and Fujita, H. (2000). The dolphin hunters: A specialized prehistoric maritime adaptation in the southern California Channel Islands and Baja California. American Antiquity 65: 543–566.
Raab, L. M., and Larson, D. O. (1997). Medieval climatic anomaly and punctuated cultural evolution in coastal southern California. American Antiquity 62: 319–336.
Ross, A., and Duffy, R. (2000). Fine mesh screening of midden material and the recovery of fish bone: The development of flotation and deflocculation techniques for an efficient and effective procedures. Geoarchaeology 15: 21–41.
Straus, L. G., Eriksen, B. V., Erlandson, J. M., and Yesner, D. R. (eds.) (1996). Humans at the End of the Ice Age: The Archaeology of the Pleistocene-Holocene Transition, Plenum Press, New York.
Tveskov, M. A. (1997). Maritime settlement and subsistence along the southern New England coast: Evidence from Block Island, Rhode Island. North American Archaeologist 18: 343–361.
Villaverde, V., Aura, J. E., and Barton, C. M. (1998). The Upper Paleolithic in Mediterranean Spain: A review of current evidence. Journal of World Prehistory 12: 121–198.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Erlandson, J.M. The Archaeology of Aquatic Adaptations: Paradigms for a New Millennium. Journal of Archaeological Research 9, 287–350 (2001). https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1013062712695
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1013062712695