Digit length ratios predict reactive aggression in women, but not in men
Introduction
The disproportionate length of human fingers has generated much interest among researchers. The lengths of the second digit (2D) and fourth digit (4D) have received the greatest attention, because of the noted sex differences (reviewed in Peters et al., 2002). The distal extent of 4D with respect to the middle finger is relatively greater than that of 2D in most males, whereas the pattern remains unspecified in females (Peters et al., 2002). The sex differences have generally been tested by expressing the pattern as 2D to 4D ratio (2D:4D). According to this formulation, males have lower 2D:4D compared to females in most populations (Manning et al., 2000a,Manning et al., 1998; Peters et al., 2002), whereas no sex difference has been reported in others (reviewed in Manning, 2002). Curiously, when sex differences are noted, they are generally larger for the right hand than the left in humans (McFadden and Shubel, 2002, Williams et al., 2000) and baboons (McFadden and Bracht, 2003). Right-rear paws in mice are also sexually dimorphic with lower 2D:4D in males compared to females (Brown et al., 2002a). Prenatal androgens may play a role in digit length patterns because most mammalian sex differences are androgen dependent (Brown et al., 2002a, Brown et al., 2002c), and digit length rankings and bone-to-bone proportions during human embryonic and fetal development are comparable to those in adulthood (Garn et al., 1975). Furthermore, studies with rodents have indicated that the neuroanatomical asymmetries favoring the right-hand side are generally observed in males and can be largely attributed to the action of the sex steroid hormone, testosterone (T) (reviewed in Wisniewski, 1998). The timing of 2D:4D differentiation, presumably as a result of androgen exposure, remains inconclusive. In one study, adult T was negatively correlated with 2D:4D in the right hand (cf. Manning et al., 1998), suggesting that T can have activational effects on the 2D:4D relationship.
A variety of behaviors that are either sexually dimorphic or ascribed to the actions of sex steroids also correlate with 2D:4D (reviewed in Manning, 2002). For example, significant associations have been reported between 2D:4D and sexual orientation and/or preference (Brown et al., 2002b, Lippa, 2003, Rahman and Wilson, 2003, Robinson and Manning, 2000, Williams et al., 2000), lateralization of hand performance (Manning et al., 2000b), and autism (Manning et al., 2001). Furthermore, low (masculinized) 2D:4D is linked to hyperactivity in girls (Williams et al., 2003), spatial navigation skills (Csatho et al., 2001), sensation seeking, and lack of inhibitions in adult women (Austin et al., 2002). Aggressive behavior is relevant to 2D:4D research, because it is sexually dimorphic. In a variety of species, including humans, males are typically more overtly aggressive than females (van Goozen et al., 1995). Sex differences in agonistic behavior are largely attributed to the actions of sex steroids, especially those of T. To our knowledge, however, no previous studies have reported any associations between 2D:4D and aggression. Accordingly, we examined the relationship between digit length ratio and human reactive aggression. Reactive aggression was operationally defined as an angry-like response to frustration (goal blocking), provocation, or threat (Berkowitz, 1989). We hypothesized that low 2D:4D, especially in the right hand would be positively correlated with aggression. Lateralization of 2D:4D was also tested through its association with adult T. Specifically, we predicted an asymmetrical influence of adult T concentrations on the right and left hand digit ratios as previously suggested (Brown et al., 2002a, Brown et al., 2002b), as well as a significant association between lateralization of 2D:4D and aggression.
Section snippets
Study sample
Participants were part of a larger study that investigated the associations among nondirectional variations from perfect symmetry in bilateral morphological traits, testosterone, and aggression. One hundred (49 female, 51 male; mean age = 20.1 years) college students at the Ohio State University participated for course credit. The results of this experiment have been reported elsewhere (Benderlioglu et al., 2004). Here, new indices were constructed with the second and fourth digit lengths, and,
Results
A one-way repeated-measures ANOVA with phase of the experiment as the single factor showed a nonsignificant decrease in T after frustration both for males and females (P's > 0.05). Therefore, we performed our analyses on T samples obtained in the neutral condition (Phase I).
Discussion
The current study investigated the associations among digit length ratios and aggression in young human adults. We also examined whether adult T concentrations are related to lateralization of 2D:4D. Our results indicate that male directional asymmetry (DA) increased as T concentrations increased confirming the predominantly right side effect of T on digit lengths.
The positive correlation between T and DA in the current study and previously reported relationship between T and masculinized
Acknowledgments
We thank two anonymous reviewers for their helpful comments on an earlier version of this manuscript. This research was supported by a research grant from the Mershon Center at the Ohio State University and NIH grant MH 57760.
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