Adipocere: What is known after over two centuries of research

doi:10.1016/j.forsciint.2010.11.024

Forensic Science International

Volume 208, Issues 1–3, 20 May 2011, Pages 167-172

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.forsciint.2010.11.024 Get rights and content

Abstract

This paper reviews over two centuries of research focusing on various issues relating to adipocere. Adipocere is a crumbly, soap-like postmortem product that forms from soft tissue in a variety of environments. The timing of the formation and degradation of adipocere depends largely on the environmental circumstances. Once formed, adipocere can persist for hundreds of years, acting as a preservative. In this way, some define it as a process of mummification. This type of persistence can be useful in a forensic context as it can preserve evidence. Sustained interest in adipocere prompted many investigations into the composition and conditions of formation. More recent investigations, aided by technological advances, build upon the knowledge gained from prior studies as well as delve into the chemical composition of adipocere. This in turn provides new information on detection and documentation of constituent substances.

Introduction

Adipocere represents a form of arrested decay of postmortem soft tissue. Variously referred to as grave wax or corpse wax [1], [2], [3], [4] this tenacious material has been documented in a variety of contexts and has served as the focus of considerable research. Through experimentation, case analysis and observation much has been learned about its external morphology, chemical composition, mechanisms of formation and the timing of its development and eventual degradation. Adipocere represents an important taphonomic phenomenon since it can lead to prolonged preservation of evidence, reveal environmental and constitutional factors that may be useful in forensic investigation and complicate evaluations of postmortem interval.

Section snippets

Definitions

Classically, adipocere has been defined by its morphological characteristics. Wetherill described it as the “fat of graveyards” [5, p. 1]. Stewart [6] and Forbes et al. [7], [8] refer to it as a soft, whitish substance. Dix [9] presents it as a saponified, hard condition. Mellen et al. [1] describe its “waxy, grey consistency.” Haglund [10] notes that when fresh, adipocere can present a soft, greasy appearance. He notes that as it ages, it may take on hard and brittle characteristics. Haglund

A process of mummification?

The literature presents varied discussion of the relationship of adipocere to more general processes of mummification. In a thorough discussion of processes of mummification and the complex terminology involved, Aufderheide [15] considers adipocere to represent a form of mummification resulting from chemical factors (as opposed to six other mechanisms of mummification). Evans [19] acknowledges the relationship between mummification and adipocere formation. He reports adipocere formation in some

History

According to den Dooren de Jong [26], as early as 1789, Fourcroy described adipocere and coined the term from the Latin words adeps (fat) and cere (wax). Fourcroy's work focused on human remains exhumed from the cemetery of the innocents in Paris [27]. He noted that in a three to five year old buried body some muscle was preserved within the adipocere formation whereas in remains buried longer even muscle could not be recognized. Fourcroy also noted that adipocere was concentrated in areas of

Chemical analysis

Chemical research since 1963 has concentrated on detection of additional components of adipocere, methodological advancement and improved precision in quantification. In 1977 Takatori and Yamaoka [45], [46] reported on the separation and identification of two kinds of oxo fatty acids found within adipocere as well as the identification and chemical properties of hydroxy fatty acids. They noted that hydroxy fatty acids comprise 3–20 percent of total fatty acids and that two hydroxy fatty acids

Timing of formation

Through research and case experience, much has been learned about the context of adipocere formation. Although typically regarded as a product of a damp environment [62], adipocere can form in a variety of contexts, including dry environments [58] and water submersion [9], [14], [61], [63], [64] even cold sea water [65]. Remains can include all ages, both sexes and both embalmed and unembalmed remains [66], although most common in individuals with high body fat and within individuals in areas

Persistence

For many years, general discussions of adipocere have recognized its extraordinary longevity once fully formed [6], [62], [63], [64], [76]. Fründ and Schoen [77] note adipocere formation in a German cadaver after 35 years. Manhein [73] reports preservation of adipocere 122 years after death in a study of a Louisiana coffin burial. Adipocere survived on frozen remains found within a retreating glacier in northwestern British Columbia, Canada dating back between 150 and 330 years [78]. In

Factors in degradation

Although adipocere represents extremely tenacious material resistant to degradation, eventually even it will break down leading to skeletonization [6]. Fisher suggests that adipocere can persist for “months or years” [64, p. 21]. In a German experimental study, Fründ and Schoenen [77] found that adipocere degraded in less than 10 years with exposure to air and soil microbiota. They suggest that degradation of adipocere is accelerated with exposure to air, moisture and fungal growth. In another

Preservation of evidence

Since adipocere represents unusual preservation of soft tissues, it can contribute to the retention of evidence related to those tissues. In the extreme, advanced adipocere can maintain the form of the body offering evidence of external morphology that can contribute to recognition and thus personal identification. Such soft tissue preservation also can preserve evidence of injury or lack thereof and thus contribute to interpretations of foul play.

As noted by Stewart [6] adipocere formation can

Summary

Much has been learned about the “fat of graveyards” since Fourcroy's 1789 descriptions of the remains from the Paris cemetery. The classic morphological definitions of a crumbly, wax-like product have now been supplemented with chemical definitions reflecting advances in methodology as well as new knowledge of the chemical products unique to adipocere. Although the literature presents some confusion regarding how to classify it in relation to other forms of preservation, the prevailing view is

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Citation Excerpt :
Since subsurface decomposition is a process primarily driven by microorganism activity, it is highly affected by intrinsic and extrinsic environmental conditions [51]. Depending on the different micro-environments that develop within and around the decomposing body, soft tissue preservation and skeletonization may be observed simultaneously [20,22]. According to Nushida et al. [56], the factors affecting adipocere formation can be divided into ‘typical’ and ‘atypical’ conditions.
Residue analysis is an established area of expertise focused on detecting traces of substances found on the surface of objects. It is routinely employed in forensic casework and increasingly incorporated into archaeological investigations.
In archaeology, sampling and data interpretation sometimes lacked strict standards, resulting in incorrect residue classifications. In particular, molecular signals of salts of fatty acids identified by FTIR have been, at times, interpreted as evidence for adipocere, a substance formed as a consequence of adipose tissues' degradation.
This article reviews and discusses the possibilities and limitations of the analytical protocols used in residue analysis in archaeology. The focus is on three main points: (1) reviewing the decomposition processes and the chemical components of adipocere; (2) highlighting potential misidentifications of adipocere while, at the same time, addressing issues related to residue preservation and contamination; and (3) proposing new research avenues to identify adipocere on archaeological objects.

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Published by Elsevier Ireland Ltd.

Adipocere: What is known after over two centuries of research

Abstract

Introduction

Section snippets

Definitions

A process of mummification?

History

Chemical analysis

Timing of formation

Persistence

Factors in degradation

Preservation of evidence

Summary

Forensic Sci. Int.

Forensic Sci. Int.

Forensic Sci. Int.

Forensic Sci. Int.

J. Biol. Chem.

Leg. Med.

J. Archaeol. Sci.

Forensic Sci. Int.

Forensic Sci. Int.

J. Forensic Sci.

Forensic Sci. Int.

Forensic Sci. Int.

Forensic Sci. Int.

Forensic Sci. Int.

Vib. Spectrosc.

Forensic Sci. Int.

Forensic Sci. Int.

Forensic Sci. Int.

Forensic Sci. Int.

J. Lipid Res.

Forensic Sci. Int.

Experimental observations on adipocere formation

J. Forensic Sci.

Post-mortem alterations of human lipids-part I: evaluation of adipocere formation and mummification by desiccation

Characterization of soils containing adipocere

Arch. Environ. Contam. Toxicol.

Solid-phase extraction in combination with GC/MS for the quantification of free fatty acids in adipocere

Eur. J. Lipid Sci. Technol.

On adipocere, and its formation

Trans. Am. Philos. Soc. n.s.

Essentials of Forensic Anthropology

Missouri's lakes and the disposal of homicide victims

J. Forensic Sci.

Disappearance of soft tissue and the disarticulation of human remains from aqueous environments

J. Forensic Sci.

Preliminary quantitative investigation of postmortem adipocere formation

J. Forensic Sci.

Beyond the grave – understanding human decomposition

Microbiol. Today

A preliminary investigation of the stages of adipocere formation

J. Forensic Sci.

Waxing grave about adipocere: soft tissue change in an aquatic context

J. Forensic Sci.

The Scientific Study of Mummies

A study of adipocere in soils collected from a field leaching study

Aust. J. Forensic Sci.

Preserved brains in medieval skulls

Am. J. Phys. Anthropol.

The Chemistry of Death

Comparison of the lipid profile of the Tyrolean Iceman with bodies recovered from glaciers

Anatomical, cellular and molecular analysis of 8,000-yr-old human brain tissue from the Windover archaeological site

Nature

Experimental study of postmortem change under field conditions: effects of freezing, thawing, and mechanical injury

J. Forensic Sci.

Time since death and decomposition of the human body: variables of observations in case and experimental field studies

J. Forensic Sci.