Abstract
Large carnivores in Italy and other European countries are protected by law to ensure their long-term conservation. Estimates of abundance and demographic trends of their populations are crucial for implementing effective conservation and management strategies. However, it is challenging to obtain basic demographic parameters for elusive species such as the wolf (Canis lupus). Monitoring wolf populations by standard field methods or non-invasive genetic approaches requires huge human efforts and may be exceedingly expensive on a nation-wide scale. Aiming to obtain a first approximate estimate of wolf distribution and abundance in Italy, we developed a systematic review procedure to analyze published data obtained from a variety of sources. We deduced relevant information on wolf presence and numbers from 20 peer-reviewed studies or official reports, and from 241 Standard Data Forms of Natura 2000 sites in Italy, referring to the period 2009–2013. We estimated the species abundance by combining the number of individuals reported in each study area with the values obtained by multiplying the estimated number of packs for the average pack size. Comparing our estimates with those previously reported, we evaluated the qualitative trend of the population for each of the two management units: Alps and Apennines. Results showed the occurrence of approximately 321 wolf packs in Italy, corresponding to 1269–1800 wolves, possibly still underestimated. The Apennine sub-population seems to be almost the double in size (with ca. 1212–1711 wolves in the period 2009–2013) compared to previous estimates (600–800 wolves between 2006 and 2011). The Alpine sub-population, despite its ongoing eastwards expansion, appears rather stable (with 57–89 wolves). Overall, the current wolf population size and trends seem favorable, although the species is still locally threatened by widespread poaching and accidents. These results represent the first estimate of abundance for the whole Italian wolf population in the last 40 years. Such information can be used to implement sound conservation strategies, especially in critical human-dominated landscapes, where conflicts with human activities and increasing rates of hybridization with free-ranging domestic dogs call for updated management plans.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Antonucci A (2014) Il lupo del Parco Nazionale della Majella. Ufficio Monitoraggio e Gestione Biodiversità, Parco Nazionale della Majella [in Italian]
Apollonio M, Mattioli L, Scandura M et al (2004) Wolves in the Casentinesi Forests: insights for wolf conservation in Italy from a protected area with a rich wild prey community. Biol Conserv 120:249–260. doi:10.1016/j.biocon.2004.02.021
Apollonio et al (2013) Monitoraggio del lupo in Regione Toscana, relazione anno 2013 [in Italian]
Barea-Azcón JM, Virgós E, Ballesteros-Duperón E et al (2006) Surveying carnivores at large spatial scales: a comparison of four broad-applied methods. Biodivers Conserv 16:1213–1230. doi:10.1007/s10531-006-9114-x
Bassi E, Willis SG, Passilongo D, Mattioli L, Apollonio M (2015) Predicting the spatial distribution of wolf (Canis lupus) breeding areas in a mountainous region of Central Italy. PLoS ONE 10, e0124698. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0124698
Boitani L (1984) Genetic considerations on wolf conservation in Italy. Bolletino di Zool 51:37–41. doi:10.1080/11250008409439476
Boitani L (1992) Wolf research and conservation in Italy. Biol Conserv 61:125–132. doi:10.1016/0006-3207(92)91102-X
Boitani L (2000) Action plan for the conservation of wolves in Europe (Canis lupus). No. 18–113. Council of Europe Press, Strasbourg, France
Boitani L (2003) Wolf conservation and recovery. In: Mech LD, Boitani L (eds) Wolves: behavior, ecology, and conservation. University of Chicago Press, Chicago, pp 317–340
Boitani L, Ciucci P, Raganella-Pelliccioni E (2011) Ex-post compensation payments for wolf predation on livestock in Italy: a tool for conservation? Wildl Res 37:722–730
Bowen-Jones E, Entwistle A (2002) Identifying appropriate flagship species: the importance of culture and local contexts. Oryx 36:189–195. doi:10.1017/S0030605302000261
Braschi C, Boitani L (2013) Risultati delle analisi genetiche. Relazione Finale, Azione A3 – Caratterizzazione genetica e morfologica degli ibridi. LIFE10NAT/IT/265 IBRIWOLF. http://www.ibriwolf.it/it/file/256/. Accessed on 4 April 2015 [in Italian]
Caniglia R, Fabbri E, Greco C et al (2010) Forensic DNA against wildlife poaching: identification of a serial wolf killing in Italy. Forensic Sci Int 4:334–338. doi:10.1016/j.fsigen.2009.10.012
Caniglia R, Fabbri E, Cubaynes S et al (2012) An improved procedure to estimate wolf abundance using non-invasive genetic sampling and capture-recapture mixture models. Conserv Genet 13:53–64. doi:10.1007/s10592-011-0266-1
Caniglia R, Fabbri E, Greco C et al (2013) Black coats in an admixed wolf × dog pack: is melanism an indicator of hybridization in wolves? Eur J Wildl Res 59:543–555. doi:10.1007/s10344-013-0703-1
Caniglia R, Fabbri E, Galaverni M et al (2014) Noninvasive sampling and genetic variability, pack structure, and dynamics in an expanding wolf population. J Mammal 95:41–59. doi:10.1644/13-MAMM-A-039
Capitani C, Bertelli I, Varuzza P (2004) A comparative analysis of wolf (Canis lupus) diet in three different Italian ecosystems. Mamm Biol 69:1–10
Chapron G, Kaczensky P, Linnell JDC et al (2014) Recovery of large carnivores in Europe’s modern human-dominated landscapes. Science 346:1517–1519. doi:10.1126/science.1257553
Ciucci P, Boitani L (1998) Il Lupo, elementi di biologia, gestione, ricerca. Documenti tecnici 23. Istituto Nazionale per la Fauna Selvatica, Ozzano dell’Emilia, Italy [in Italian]
Ciucci P, Boitani L (2004) Progetto per la ricerca e conservazione del lupo (Canis lupus) nel Parco Nazionale del Pollino. Relazione finale delle attività di ricerca (1999–2003). Parco Nazionale del Pollino, Italy [in Italian]
Ciucci, Boitani (2009) Conservation of large carnivores in Abruzzo: a research project integrating Species, Habitat and Human Dimension. Annual report 2009
Ciucci P, Chapron G, Guberti V (2007) Estimation of mortality parameters from (biased) samples at death: are we getting the basics right in wildlife field studies? A response to Lovari et al. J Zool 273:125–127. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7998.2007.00379.x
Ciucci P, Reggioni W, Maiorano L, Boitani L (2009) Long-distance dispersal of a rescued wolf from the Northern Apennines to the Western Alps. J Wildl Manag 73:1300–1306. doi:10.2193/2008-510
Convivere con il lupo: conoscere per preservare (2014) Il sistema dei Parchi nazionali dell’Appennino meridionale per lo sviluppo di misure coordinate di protezione per il lupo. Final report [in Italian]
Corsi F, Duprè E, Boitani L (1999) A large‐scale model of wolf distribution in Italy for conservation planning. Conserv Biol 13:150–159
Creel S, Spong G, Sands JL et al (2003) Population size estimation in Yellowstone wolves with error-prone noninvasive microsatellite genotypes. Mol Ecol 12:2003–2009. doi:10.1046/j.1365-294X.2003.01868.x
Davison AC, Hinkley DV (1997) Bootstrap methods and their application. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge
Ebert C, Knauer F, Storch I, Hohmann U (2010) Individual heterogeneity as a pitfall in population estimates based on non-invasive genetic sampling: a review and recommendations. Wildl Biol 16:225–240. doi:10.2981/09-108
Fabbri E, Miquel C, Lucchini V et al (2007) From the Apennines to the Alps: colonization genetics of the naturally expanding Italian wolf (Canis lupus) population. Mol Ecol 16:1661–1671. doi:10.1111/j.1365-294X.2007.03262.x
Fabbri E, Caniglia R, Kusak J et al (2014) Genetic structure of expanding wolf (Canis lupus) populations in Italy and Croatia, and the early steps of the recolonization of the Eastern Alps. Mamm Biol 79:138–148. doi:10.1016/j.mambio.2013.10.002
Fabrizio M (2010) In: Fabrizio M, D’Amico S, Lucci V (eds). Proceedings of the conference “Bentornato lupo: convegno sul lupo appenninico”. 23 agosto 2008—Pettorano sul Gizio (AQ). I quaderni del Centro Studi per le Reti Ecologiche. Volume 2, 36 pp [in Italian]
Falcucci A, Maiorano L, Tempio G, Boitani L, Ciucci P (2013) Modeling the potential distribution for a range-expanding species: wolf recolonization of the Alpine range. Biol Conserv 158:63–72. doi:10.1016/j.biocon.2012.08.029
Genovesi P (2002) Piano d’azione nazionale per la conservazione del Lupo (Canis lupus). Quad Cons Nat 13, Min. Ambiente—INFS, Ozzano dell'Emilia, Italy [in Italian]
Genovesi P, Angelini P, Bianchi E, Dupré E, Ercole S, Giacanelli V, Ronchi F, Stoch F (2014). Specie e habitat di interesse comunitario in Italia: distribuzione, stato di conservazione e trend. Serie Rapporti 194/2014, ISPRA [in Italian]
Gervasi V, Brøseth H, Gimenez O et al (2014) The risks of learning: confounding detection and demographic trend when using count-based indices for population monitoring. Ecol Evol 4:4637–4648. doi:10.1002/ece3.1258
Giacchini P (2012) Il lupo nella Regione Marche. Relazione 2012. Regione Marche [in Italian]
Glikman JA, Vaske JJ, Bath AJ et al (2012) Residents’ support for wolf and bear conservation: the moderating influence of knowledge. Eur J Wildl Res 58:295–302. doi:10.1007/s10344-011-0579-x
Groff et al. [a cura di] (2013) Rapporto Orso 2012 del Servizio Foreste e fauna della Provincia Autonoma di Trento. http://www.orso.provincia.tn.it/binary/pat_orso/rapporto_orso/Rapporto_Orso_2012.1362642771.pdf. Accessed on 1 November 2014
Hayes RD, Harestad AS (2000) Demography of a recovering wolf population in the Yukon. Can J Zool 78:36–48. doi:10.1139/cjz-78-1-36
ISPRA data; Canis database, update 2014
Kaczensky P, Chapron G, Von Arx M et al (2013) Status, management and distribution of large carnivores—bear, lynx, wolf & wolverine—in Europe. Report to the EU Commission, 272. http://www.lcie.org/Publications.aspx. Accessed on 2 April 2015
Khan KS, Kunz R, Kleijnen J, Antes G (2003) Five steps to conducting a systematic review. J R Soc Med 96:118–121. doi:10.1258/jrsm.96.3.118
Kohn MH, York EC, Kamradt DA et al (1999) Estimating population size by genotyping faeces. Proc Biol Sci 266:657–663. doi:10.1098/rspb.1999.0686
Liberg O, Aronson Å, Sand H et al (2012a) Monitoring of wolves in Scandinavia. Hystrix 23:29–34. doi:10.4404/hystrix-23.1-4670
Liberg O, Chapron G, Wabakken P et al (2012b) Shoot, shovel and shut up: cryptic poaching slows restoration of a large carnivore in Europe. Proc R Soc B Biol Sci 279:910–915. doi:10.1098/rspb.2011.1275
LIFE 07NAT/IT/000502 – EX-TRA (2013) Final Report. http://www.lifextra.it/index.php?option=com_docman&task=doc_download&gid=189&Itemid=30&lang=it. Accessed on 2 April 2015
Linnell JDC, Boitani L (2011) Building biological realism into wolf management policy: the development of the population approach in Europe. Hystrix 23:80–91
Lovari S, Sforzi A, Scala C, Fico R (2007) Mortality parameters of the wolf in Italy: does the wolf keep himself from the door? J Zool 272:117–124. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7998.2006.00260.x
Lucchini V, Galov A, Randi E (2004) Evidence of genetic distinction and long-term population decline in wolves (Canis lupus) in the Italian Apennines. Mol Ecol 13:523–536. doi:10.1046/j.1365-294X.2004.02077.x
Luikart G, Ryman N, Tallmon DA et al (2010) Estimation of census and effective population sizes: the increasing usefulness of DNA-based approaches. Conserv Genet 11:355–373. doi:10.1007/s10592-010-0050-7
Marucco F, Avanzinelli E (2011) Stato, distribuzione e dimensione della popolazione di lupo in regione Piemonte. Rapporto Progetto Lupo Regione Piemonte 1999-2010 - Aggiornamento inverno 2010-2011. Regione Piemonte [in Italian]
Marucco F, Boitani L (2012) Wolf population monitoring and livestock depredation preventive measures in Europe. Hystrix 23:1–4. doi:10.4404/hystrix-23.1-6364
Marucco F, McIntire EJB (2010) Predicting spatio-temporal recolonization of large carnivore populations and livestock depredation risk: wolves in the Italian Alps. J Appl Ecol 47:789–798. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2664.2010.01831.x
Marucco F, Avanzinelli E, Colombo M (2012) Il Monitoraggio del lupo in regione Piemonte I dati raccolti nell’inverno 2011–2012. Regione Piemonte [in Italian]
Marucco F, Boitani L, Pletscher DH, Schwartz MK (2010) Bridging the gaps between non-invasive genetic sampling and population parameter estimation. Eur J Wildl Res 57:1–13. doi:10.1007/s10344-010-0477-7
Marucco F, Pletscher DH, Boitani L et al (2009) Wolf survival and population trend using non-invasive capture-recapture techniques in the Western Alps. J Appl Ecol 46:1003–1010. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2664.2009.01696.x
Mattioli L, Capitani C, Gazzola A, Scandura M, Apollonio M (2011) Prey selection and dietary response by wolves in a high-density multi-species ungulate community. Eur J Wildl Res 57:909–922. doi:10.1007/s10344-011-0503-4
Mattioli L, Forconi P, Berzi D, Perco F (2014) Wolf population estimate in Italy and monitoring perspectives.http://www.italian-journal-of-mammalogy.it/article/download/10096/pdf_10096. Accessed 4 Apr 2015 [in Italian]
Meriggi et al. (2011) Monitoraggio delle popolazioni di grandi carnivori nel parco delle Orobie bergamasche. Final report [in Italian]
Meriggi et al. (2012) Distribuzione, consistenza ed impatto del lupo in Liguria. Strategia di convivenza e gestione dei conflitti [in Italian]
Morini P (2010) In: Fabrizio M, D’Amico S, Lucci V (eds). Proceedings of the conference “Bentornato lupo: convegno sul lupo appenninico”. 23 agosto 2008—Pettorano sul Gizio (AQ). I quaderni del Centro Studi per le Reti Ecologiche. Volume 2, 36 pp [in Italian]
Parco Naturale Regionale dei Monti Simbruini (2012) Monitoraggio e gestione del lupo nella Provincia di Roma. Final report [in Italian]
Parco Regionale della Lessinia - CFS Veneto (2014) Online report. http://www.corpoforestale.it/flex/cm/pages/ServeBLOB.php/L/IT/IDPagina/9731. Accessed on 4 April 2015
Randi E (2011) Genetics and conservation of wolves Canis lupus in Europe. Mamm Rev 41:99–111. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2907.2010.00176.x
Randi E, Hulva P, Fabbri E et al (2014) Multilocus detection of wolf x dog hybridization in Italy, and guidelines for marker selection. PLoS One 9:e86409. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0086409
Regione Basilicata, Dipartimento Ambiente, Territorio e Politiche della Sostenibilità, Ufficio Tutela della Natura—31 Standard Data Forms for Natura 2000 sites. http://natura2000.eea.europa.eu/. Accessed on 1 November 2014
Regione Calabria, Dipartimento Politiche dell’Ambiente—59 Standard Data Forms for Natura 2000 sites. http://natura2000.eea.europa.eu/. Accessed on 1 November 2014
Regione Campania, Assessorato all’Ecologia e alla Tutela dell’Ambiente, AGC 05, Settore Ecologia—23 Standard Data Forms for Natura 2000 sites. http://natura2000.eea.europa.eu/. Accessed on 1 November 2014
Regione Lazio Direzione Ambiente—36 Standard Data Forms for Natura 2000 sites. http://natura2000.eea.europa.eu/. Accessed on 1 November 2014
Regione Molise Direzione Generale VI Servizio Conservazione della Natura—20 Standard Data Forms for Natura 2000 sites. http://natura2000.eea.europa.eu/. Accessed on 1 November 2014
Regione Puglia, Assessorato alla Qualità del Territorio, Settore Ecologia, Ufficio Parchi e Riserve Naturali—3 Standard Data Forms for Natura 2000 sites http://natura2000.eea.europa.eu/. Accessed on 1 November 2014
Regione Umbria, Direzione Agricoltura e Foreste, servizio XI—69 Standard Data Forms for Natura 2000 sites http://natura2000.eea.europa.eu/. Accessed on 1 November 2014
Ripple WJ, Beschta RL (2012) Trophic cascades in Yellowstone: the first 15 years after wolf reintroduction. Biol Conserv 145:205–213. doi:10.1016/j.biocon.2011.11.005
Ripple WJ, Estes JA, Beschta RL et al (2014) Status and ecological effects of the world’s largest carnivores. Science 343:1241484. doi:10.1126/science.1241484
Scandura M, Iacolina L, Capitani C et al (2011) Fine-scale genetic structure suggests low levels of short-range gene flow in a wolf population of the Italian Apennines. Eur J Wildl Res 57:949–958. doi:10.1007/s10344-011-0509-y
Servizio scientifico Parco Nazionale Gran Paradiso (2013) Relazione annuale di servizio. Piano performance 2013. Servizio sanitario e della ricerca scientifica. PNGP, 2013, Arch. PNGP [in Italian]
Solberg K, Bellemain E, Drageset O et al (2006) An evaluation of field and non-invasive genetic methods to estimate brown bear (Ursus arctos) population size. Biol Conserv 128:158–168. doi:10.1016/j.biocon.2005.09.025
Taylor BL, Dizon AE (1999) First policy then science: why a management unit based solely on genetic criteria cannot work. Mol Ecol 8:S11–S16
Ufficio Caccia e Pesca—Provincia Autonoma di Bolzano (2012) Online document. http://www.provincia.bz.it/foreste/fauna-caccia/2875.asp. Accessed on 4 April 2015
Wilson GJ, Frantz AC, Pope LC et al (2003) Estimation of badger abundance using faecal DNA typing. J Appl Ecol 40:658–666. doi:10.1046/j.1365-2664.2003.00835.x
Woods JG, Paetkau D, Lewis D, McLellan BN, Proctor M, Strobeck C (1999) Genetic tagging of free-ranging black and brown bears. Wildl Soc Bull 27:616–627
Zimen E, Boitani L (1975) Number and distribution of wolves in Italy. Z fur Saugetierkunde 40:102–112
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Additional information
Communicated by: Cino Pertoldi
Marco Galaverni and Romolo Caniglia contributed equally to this work.
Electronic supplementary material
Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.
Online Resource 1
(PDF 125 kb)
Online Resource 2
(PDF 170 kb)
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Galaverni, M., Caniglia, R., Fabbri, E. et al. One, no one, or one hundred thousand: how many wolves are there currently in Italy?. Mamm Res 61, 13–24 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1007/s13364-015-0247-8
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s13364-015-0247-8