Abstract
This chapter provides a review of the current knowledge in tendon repair, healing, and rehabilitation, which would clearly be incomplete without first reviewing tendon anatomy in the hand.
Keywords
These keywords were added by machine and not by the authors. This process is experimental and the keywords may be updated as the learning algorithm improves.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Preview
Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.
References
Moore KL, Agur AMR. Essential Clinical Anatomy. Williams & Wilkins, Baltimore, MD, 1995.
Sinnatamby CS. Last’s Anatomy: Regional and Applied, 10th Ed.: Churchill Livingstone, New York, NY, 1999, p. 539.
Williams PL. Gray’s Anatomy, 38th Ed. Churchill Livingstone, New York, NY, 1995, p. 2092.
Green DP, Hotchkiss RN, Pederson WC. Green’s Operative Hand Surgery. 4th Ed. Churchill Livingstone, New York, NY, 1998.
Smith P. Lister’s The Hand, 4th Ed. Churchill Livingstone, New York, NY, 2001, p. 624.
Thompson NW, et al. Functional absence of flexor digitorum superficialis to the little finger and absence of palmaris longus—is there a link? J Hand Surg [Br] 2002;27:433–434.
Rayan GM. Palmar fascial complex anatomy and pathology in Dupuytren’s disease. Hand. Clin 1999;15:73–86,vi-vii.
Saar JD, Grothaus PC. Dupuytren’s disease: an overview. Plast Reconstr Surg 2000;106:125–136.
Chrysopoulo MT, et al. Cleland’s ligaments: an anatomic study. Plast Reconstr Surg 2002;109:566–575.
Idler RS. Anatomy and biomechanics of the digital flexor tendons. Hand Clin 1985;1:3–11.
Austin GJ, Leslie BM, Ruby LK. Variations of the flexor digitorum superficialis of the small finger. J Hand Surg [Am] 1989;14:262–267.
Baker DS, et al. The little finger superficialis—clinical investigation of its anatomic and functional shortcomings. J Hand Surg [Am] 1981;6:374–378.
Stein A, Lemos M, Stein S. Clinical evaluation of flexor tendon function in the small finger. Ann Emerg Med 1990;19:991–993.
Ohtani O. Structure of the flexor digitorum superficialis. Okajimas Folia Anat Jpn 1979;56:277–288.
Boyer MI, et al. Flexor tendon repair and rehabilitation. State of the art in 2002. Instr. Course Lect 2003;52:591–605.
Brockis JG. The blood supply of the flexor tendon and extensor tendons of the fingers in man. J Bone Joint Surg Br 1953;35:131–138.
Boyer MI, et al. Repair of flexor digitorum profundus tendon avulsions from bone: an ex vivo biomechanical analysis. J Hand Surg [Am] 2002;27:594–598.
Gelberman RH, Manske PR. Factors influencing flexor tendon adhesions. Hand Clin 1985;1:35–42.
Manske PR, Lesker PA. Flexor tendon nutrition. Hand Clin 1985;1:13–24.
Doyle JR. Palmar and digital flexor tendon pulleys. Clin Orthop 2001;383:84–96.
Sbernardori MC, et al. Histogenesis and morphology of the flexor tendon pulley system in the human embryonic hand. J Hand Surg [Br] 2000;25:175–179.
Doyle JR. Anatomy of the finger flexor tendon sheath and pulley system. J Hand Surg [Am] 1988;13:473–484.
Doyle JR. Anatomy of the flexor tendon sheath and pulley system: a current review. J Hand. Surg [Am] 1989;14:349–351.
Kleinert HE, Verdan C. Report of the Committee on Tendon Injuries (International Federation of Societies for Surgery of the Hand). J Hand Surg [Am] 1983;8:794–798.
von Schroeder HP, Botte MJ. Anatomy and functional significance of the long extensors to the fingers and thumb. Clin Orthop 2001;383:74–83.
Schenck R. Variations of the extensor tendons of the fingers: Surgical significance. J Bone. Joint Surg Am 1964;46:103–110.
von Schroeder HP, Botte MJ. Anatomy of the extensor tendons of the fingers: variations and multiplicity. J Hand Surg [Am] 1995;20:27–34.
von Schroeder HP, Botte MJ. The functional significance of the long extensors and juncturae tendinum in finger extension. J Hand Surg [Am] 1993;18:641–647.
Hirai Y, et al. An anatomic study of the extensor tendons of the human hand. J Hand Surg. [Am] 2001;26:1009–1015.
von Schroeder HP, Botte MJ. Functional anatomy of the extensor tendons of the digits. Hand Clin 1997;13:51–62.
Rockwell WB, Butler PN, Byrne BA. Extensor tendon: anatomy, injury, and reconstruction. Plast Reconstr Surg 2000;106:1592–1603.
Doyle JR, Blythe WF. Anatomy of the flexor tendon sheath and pulleys of the thumb. J. Hand Surg 1977;2:149–151.
Bayat A, et al. The pulley system of the thumb: anatomic and biomechanical study. J Hand. Surg [Am] 2002;27:628–635.
Bunnell S. Injuries of the hand. In Surgery of the Hand. JB Lippincott, Philadelphia, PA, 1944, pp. 449–502.
Lister GD, et al. Primary flexor tendon repair followed by immediate controlled mobilization. J Hand Surg [Am] 1977;2:441–451.
Kessler I, Nissim F. Primary repair without immobilization of flexor tendon division within the digital sheath. An experimental and clinical study. Acta Orthop Scand 1969;40:587–601.
Verdan CE. Primary repair of flexor tendons. J Bone Joint Surg Am 1960;42:647–657.
Kleinert HE, Kutz JE, Ashbell TS. Primary repair of lacerated flexor tendons in no man’s land (abstract). J Bone Joint Surg Am 1967;49:577.
Kleinert HE, et al. Primary repair of flexor tendons. Orthop Clin North Am 1973;4:865–876.
Ejeskar A. Flexor tendon repair in no-man’s-land: results of primary repair with controlled mobilization. J Hand Surg [Am] 1984;9:171–177.
Strickland JW, Glogovac SV. Digital function following flexor tendon repair in Zone II: A comparison of immobilization and controlled passive motion techniques. J Hand Surg. [Am] 1980;5:537–543.
Woo SL, et al. The importance of controlled passive mobilization on flexor tendon healing. A biomechanical study. Acta Orthop Scand 1981;52:615–622.
Feehan LM, Beauchene JG. Early tensile properties of healing chicken flexor tendons: early controlled passive motion versus postoperative immobilization. J Hand Surg [Am] 1990;15:63–68.
Takai S, et al. The effects of frequency and duration of controlled passive mobilization on tendon healing. J Orthop Res 1991;9:705–713.
Gelberman RH, et al. Effects of early intermittent passive mobilization on healing canine flexor tendons. J Hand Surg [Am] 1982;7:170–175.
Gelberman RH, et al. The early stages of flexor tendon healing: a morphologic study of the first fourteen days. J Hand Surg [Am] 1985;10:776–784.
Gelberman RH, et al. The effects of mobilization on the vascularization of healing flexor tendons in dogs. Clin Orthop 1980;153:283–289.
Lee H. Double loop locking suture: a technique of tendon repair for early active mobilization. Part I: Evolution of technique and experimental study. J Hand Surg [Am] 1990;15:945–952.
Aoki M, et al. Biomechanical and histologic characteristics of canine flexor tendon repair using early postoperative mobilization. J Hand Surg [Am] 1997;22:107–114.
Savage R, Risitano G. Flexor tendon repair using a “six strand” method of repair and early active mobilization. J Hand Surg [Br] 1989;14:396–399.
Small JO, Brennen MD, Colville J. Early active mobilization following flexor tendon repair in zone II. J Hand Surg [Br] 1989;14:383–391.
Cullen KW, et al. Flexor tendon repair in zone II followed by controlled active mobilization. J Hand Surg [Br] 1989;14:392–395.
Kubota H, et al. Mechanical properties of various circumferential tendon suture techniques. J Hand Surg [Br] 1996;21:474–480.
Bainbridge LC, et al. A comparison of post-operative mobilization of flexor tendon repairs with “passive flexion-active extension” and “controlled active motion” techniques. J Hand Surg [Br] 1994;19:517–521.
Elliot D, et al. The rupture rate of acute flexor tendon repairs mobilized by the controlled active motion regimen. J Hand Surg [Br] 1994;19:607–612.
Bruner JM. The zig-zag volar-digital incision for flexor-tendon surgery. Plast Reconstr. Surg 1967;40:571–574.
Becker H, Davidoff M. Eliminating the gap in flexor tendon surgery. A new method of suture. Hand 1977;9:306–311.
Seradge H. Elongation of the repair configuration following flexor tendon repair. J Hand. Surg [Am] 1983;8:182–185.
Ejeskar A, Irstam L. Elongation in profundus tendon repair. A clinical and radiological study. Scand J Plast Reconstr Surg 1981;15:61–68.
Gelberman RH, et al. The effect of gap formation at the repair site on the strength and excursion of intrasynovial flexor tendons. An experimental study on the early stages of tendon-healing in dogs. J Bone Joint Surg Am 1999;81:975–982.
Kessler I. The “grasping” technique for tendon repair. Hand 1973;5:253–255.
Pennington DG. The locking loop tendon suture. Plast Reconstr Surg 1979;63:648–652.
Mashadi ZB, Amis AA. The effect of locking loops on the strength of tendon repair. J. Hand Surg [Br] 1991;16:35–39.
Hotokezaka S, Manske PR. Differences between locking loops and grasping loops: effects on 2-strand core suture. J Hand Surg [Am] 1997;22:995–1003.
Wada A, et al. The mechanical properties of locking and grasping suture loop configurations in four-strand core suture techniques. J Hand Surg [Br] 2000;25:548–551.
Hatanaka H, Manske PR. Effect of the cross-sectional area of locking loops in flexor tendon repair. J Hand Surg [Am] 1999;24:751–760.
Kubota H, et al. Effect of a new repair technique on biomechanical properties of canine flexor tendons: in vitro study. Hand Surg 1998;3:247–255.
Greenwald DP, Hong HZ, May Jr. JW. Mechanical analysis of tendon suture techniques. J Hand Surg [Am] 1994;19:641–647.
Taras JS. Primary flexor tendon repair. Oper Tech Orthop 1993;3:270–277.
Ketchum LD. Suture materials and suture techniques used in tendon repair. Hand Clin 1985;1:43–53.
Shaieb MD, Singer DI. Tensile strengths of various suture techniques. J Hand Surg [Br] 1997;22:764–767.
McLarney E, Hoffman H, Wolfe SW. Biomechanical analysis of the cruciate four-strand flexor tendon repair. J Hand Surg [Am] 1999;24:295–301.
Dinopoulos HT, et al. The resistance of a four-and eight-strand suture technique to gap formation during tensile testing: an experimental study of repaired canine flexor tendons after 10 days of in vivo healing. J Hand Surg [Am] 2000;25:489–498.
Winters SC, et al. The effects of multiple-strand suture methods on the strength and excursion of repaired intrasynovial flexor tendons: a biomechanical study in dogs. J Hand Surg. [Am] 1998;23:97–104.
Trail IA, Powell ES, Noble J. The mechanical strength of various suture techniques. J. Hand Surg [Br] 1992;17:89–91.
Ketchum LD, Martin NL, Kappel DA. Experimental evaluation of factors affecting the strength of tendon repairs. Plast Reconstr Surg 1977;59:708–719.
Aoki M, et al. Effect of suture knots on tensile strength of repaired canine flexor tendons. J Hand Surg [Br] 1995;20:72–75.
Momose T, et al. The effect of knot location, suture material, and suture size on the gliding resistance of flexor tendons. J Biomed Mater Res 2000;53:806–811.
Diao E, et al. Effect of peripheral suture depth on strength of tendon repairs. J Hand Surg. [Am] 1996;21:234–239.
Wade PJ, Muir IF, Hutcheon LL. Primary flexor tendon repair: the mechanical limitations of the modified Kessler technique. J Hand Surg [Br] 1986;11:71–76.
Kim PT, et al. Tensile strength of cross-stitch epitenon suture. J Hand Surg [Br] 1996;21:821–823.
Mashadi ZB, Amis AA. Strength of the suture in the epitenon and within the tendon fibres: development of stronger peripheral suture technique. J Hand Surg [Br] 1992;17:172–175.
Leddy JP. Flexor tendon-acute injuries. In Green DP, ed. Operative Hand Surgery, Churchill Livingstone, New York, NY, 1993, pp. 1823–1851.
Silfverskiold KL, Andersson CH. Two new methods of tendon repair: an in vitro evaluation of tensile strength and gap formation. J Hand Surg [Am] 1993;18:58–65.
Dona E, et al. The Biomechanical Properties of Two New Flexor Tendon Circumferential. Suture Techniques. British Society for Surgery of the Hand Autumn Meeting, Edinburgh, Scotland, 2002.
Wade PJ, Wetherell RG, Amis AA. Flexor tendon repair: significant gain in strength from the Halsted peripheral suture technique. J Hand Surg [Br] 1989;14:232–235.
Lin GT, et al. Biomechanical studies of running suture for flexor tendon repair in dogs. J. Hand Surg [Am] 1988;13:553–558.
Peterson WW, et al. Effect of pulley excision on flexor tendon biomechanics. J Orthop. Res 1986;4:96–101.
Lin GT, et al. Functional anatomy of the human digital flexor pulley system. J Hand Surg. [Am] 1989;14:949–956.
Manske PR, Lesker PA. Comparative nutrient pathways to the flexor profundus tendons in Zone II of various experimental animals. J Surg Res 1983;34:83–93.
Bowers WH, Kuzma GR, Bynum DK. Closed traumatic rupture of finger flexor pulleys. J. Hand Surg [Am] 1994;19:782–787.
Doyle JR, Blythe W. Macroscopic and functional anatomy of the flexor sheath. Proceedings of the 29th Annual American Society for Surgery of the Hand. J Bone Joint Surg Am 1974;56:1094.
Kwai Ben I, Elliot D. “Venting” or partial lateral release of the A2 and A4 pulleys after repair of zone II flexor tendon injuries. J Hand Surg [Br] 1998;23:649–654.
Mitsionis G, et al. Feasibility of partial A2 and A4 pulley excision: residual pulley strength. J Hand Surg [Br] 2000;25:90–94.
Mitsionis G, et al. Feasibility of partial A2 and A4 pulley excision: effect on finger flexor tendon biomechanics. J Hand Surg [Am] 1999;24:310–314.
Tomaino M, et al. The effect of partial excision of the A2 and A4 pulleys on the biomechanics of finger flexion. J Hand Surg [Br] 1998;23:50–52.
Tang JB, Xie RG. Effect of A3 pulley and adjacent sheath integrity on tendon excursion and bowstringing. J Hand Surg [Am] 2001;26:855–861.
Bunnell S. Surgery of the Hand, 2nd Ed. JB Lippincott, Philadelphia, PA, 1948, pp. 381–466.
Moiemen NS, Elliot D. Primary flexor tendon repair in zone 1. J Hand Surg [Br] 2000;25:78–84.
Silva MJ, et al. Flexor digitorum profundus tendon-to-bone repair: an ex vivo biomechanical analysis of 3 pullout suture techniques. J Hand Surg [Am] 1998;23:120–126.
Skoff HD, et al. Bone suture anchors in hand surgery. J Hand Surg [Br] 1995;20:245–248.
Buch BD, et al. The Mitek Mini G2 suture anchor: biomechanical analysis of use in the hand. J Hand Surg [Am] 1995;20:877–881.
Brustein M, et al. Bone suture anchors versus the pullout button for repair of distal profundus tendon injuries: a comparison of strength in human cadaveric hands. J Hand Surg [Am] 2001;26:489–496.
Hueston JT, Wilson WF. Flexor fibre protrusion through the digital fibrous flexor sheath. Hand 1973;5:39–42.
Janecki Jr CJ. Triggering of the finger caused by flexor-tendon laceration. J Bone Joint Surg. Am 1976;58:1174–1175.
Bilos ZJ, Hui PW, Stamelos S. Trigger finger following partial flexor tendon laceration. Hand 1977;9:232–233.
Schlenker JD, Lister GD, Kleinert HE. Three complications of untreated partial laceration of flexor tendon—entrapment, rupture, and triggering. J Hand Surg [Am] 1981;6:392–398.
Minami A, Ogino T. Trigger wrist caused by a partial laceration of the flexor superficialis tendon of the ring finger. J Hand Surg [Br] 1986;11:457–459.
Frewin PR, Scheker LR. Triggering secondary to an untreated partially-cut flexor tendon. J Hand Surg [Br] 1989;14:419–421.
al-Qattan MM, Posnick JC, Lin KY. Triggering after partial tendon laceration. J Hand. Surg [Br] 1993;18:241–246.
Ollinger H, Wray Jr RC, Weeks PM. Effects of suture on tensile strength gain of partially and completely severed tendons. Surg Forum 1975;26:63–64.
Reynolds B, Wray Jr RC, Weeks PM. Should an incompletely severed tendon be sutured? Plast Reconstr Surg 1976;57:36–38.
Hariharan JS, et al. Partial lacerations of human digital flexor tendons: a biomechanical analysis. J Hand Surg [Am] 1997;22:1011–1015.
Wray Jr RC, Weeks PM. Treatment of partial tendon lacerations. Hand 1980;12:163–166.
al-Qattan MM. Conservative management of zone II partial flexor tendon lacerations greater than half the width of the tendon. J Hand Surg [Am] 2000;25:1118–1121.
Verdan CE. Primary and secondary repair of flexor and extensor tendon injuries. In Flynn JE, ed. Hand Surgery. Williams & Wilkins, Baltimore, MD, 1975.
Minamikawa Y, et al. Wrist position and extensor tendon amplitude following repair. J. Hand Surg [Am] 1992;17:268–271.
Elson RA. Rupture of the central slip of the extensor hood of the finger. A test for early diagnosis. J Bone Joint Surg Br 1986;68:229–231.
Tubiana R. Surgical repair of the extensor apparatus of the fingers. Surg Clin North Am 1968;48:1015–1031.
Hart RG, Uehara DT, Kutz JE. Extensor tendon injuries of the hand. Emerg Med Clin. North Am 1993;11:637–649.
Blair WF, Steyers CM. Extensor tendon injuries. Orthop Clin North Am 1992;23:141–148.
Manske PR. Flexor tendon healing. J Hand Surg [Brit] 1988;13:237–245.
Potenza AD. Critical evaluation of flexor tendon healing adhesion formation within artificial digital sheaths. J Bone Joint Surg Am 1963;45:1217–1233.
Lundborg G, Eiken O, Rank F. Synovium as a nutritional medium in tendon grafting. Handchirurgie 1977;9:107–111.
Manske PR, Lesker PA. Histologic evidence of intrinsic flexor tendon repair in various experimental animals. An in vitro study. Clin Orthop 1984;182:297–304.
Kain CC, et al. The effect of vascularization on avian flexor tendon repair. A biochemical study. Clin Orthop 1988;233:295–303.
Lundborg G. The vascularization of the human flexor pollicis longus tendon. Hand 1979;11:28–33.
Lundborg G, Myrhage R, Rydevik B. The vascularization of human flexor tendons within the digital synovial sheath region—structureal and functional aspects. J Hand Surg [Am] 1977;2:417–427.
Hooper G, Davies R, Tothill P. Blood flow and clearance in tendons. Studies with dogs. J. Bone Joint Surg Br 1984;66:441–443.
Buckwalter JA, Einhorn TA, Sheldon SR. Orthopaedic Basic Science. Biology and Biomechanics. of the Musculoskeletal System, 2nd Ed. American Academy of Orthopedic Surgeons, Rosemont, IL, 2003.
Boyer MI, et al. Quantitative variation in vascular endothelial growth factor mRNA expression during early flexor tendon healing: an investigation in a canine model. J Orthop Res 2001;19:869–872.
Peacock Jr EE. Inter-and intramolecular bonding in collagen of healing wounds by insertion of methylene and amide cross-links into scar tissue: tensile strength and thermal shrinkage in rats. Ann Surg 1966;163:1–9.
Peacock Jr EE. Biology of tendon repair. N Engl J Med 1967;276:680–683.
Peacock Jr EE. Dynamic aspects of collagen biology. I. Synthesis and assembly. J Surg. Res 1967;7:433–445.
Peacock Jr EE. Dynamic aspects of collagen biology. II. Degradation and metabolism. J. Surg Res 1967;7:481–497.
Peacock Jr EE, Madden JW. Human composite flexor tendon allografts. Ann Surg 1967;166:624–629.
Peacock Jr EE, Madden JW. Some studies on the effects of beta-aminopropionitrile in patients with injured flexor tendons. Surgery 1969;66:215–223.
Potenza AD. Flexor tendon injuries. Orthop Clin North Am 1970;1:355–373.
Potenza AD, Melone C. Evaluation of freeze-dried flexor tendon grafts in the dog. J Hand. Surg [Am] 1978;3:157–162.
Whitson TC, Peacock Jr EE. Effect of alpha alpha dipyridyl on collagen synthesis in healing wounds. Surg Gynecol Obstet 1969;128:1061–1064.
Craver JM, Madden JW, Peacock Jr EE. Biological control of physical properties of tendon adhesions: effect of beta-aminopropionitrile in chickens. Ann Surg 1968;167:697–704.
Potenza AD, Herte MC. The synovial cavity as a “tissue culture in situ”—science or nonsense? J Hand Surg [Am] 1982;7:196–199.
Potenza AD. Philosophy of flexor tendon surgery. Orthop Clin North Am 1986;17:349–352.
Potenza AD. Digital sheath excision. J Hand Surg [Am] 1991;16:765–766.
Potenza AD. Flexor sheath continuity. J Hand Surg [Am] 1992;17:581–583.
Lindsay WK, Thomson HG. Digital flexor tendons: an experimental study, Part I. The significance of each component of the flexor mechanism in tendon healing. Br J Plast. Surg 1960;12:289–319.
Lindsay WK, Thomson HG, Walker FG. Digital flexor tendons: an experimental study, Part II. The significance of a gap occuring at the line of suture. Br J Plast Surg 1960;13:1–9.
Lindsay WK, McDougall EP. Digital flexor tendons: an experimental study, Part III. The fate of autogenous digital flexor tendon grafts. Br J Plast Surg 1961;13:293–304.
Lundborg G, Rank F. Experimental intrinsic healing of flexor tendons based upon synovial fluid nutrition. J Hand Surg [Am] 1978;3:21–31.
Lundborg G, et al. Superficial repair of severed flexor tendons in synovial environment. An experimental, ultrastructural study on cellular mechanisms. J Hand Surg [Am] 1980;5:451–461.
Rank F, et al. Flexor tendon specimens in organ cultures. Scand J Plast Reconstr Surg 1980;14:179–183.
Becker H, et al. Intrinsic tendon cell proliferation in tissue culture. J Hand Surg [Am] 1981;6:616–619.
Graham MF, et al. Intrinsic tendon fibroplasia: documentation by in vitro studies. J Orthop. Res 1984;1:251–256.
Manske PR, et al. Intrinsic flexor-tendon repair. A morphological study in vitro. J Bone. Joint Surg Am 1984;66:385–396.
Manske PR, Lesker PA. Biochemical evidence of flexor tendon participation in the repair process—an in vitro study. J Hand Surg [Brit] 1984;9:117–120.
Gelberman RH, et al. Flexor tendon repair in vitro: a comparative histologic study of the rabbit, chicken, dog, and monkey. J Orthop Res 1984;2:39–48.
Harwood FL, Goomer RS, Gelberman RH, Silva MJ, Ameil D, et al. Regulation of alpha(v)beta3 and alpha5beta1 integrin receptors by basic fibroblast growth factor and platelet-derived growth factor-BB in intrasynovial flexor tendon cells. Wound Repair. Regen 1999;7:381–388.
Klein MB, et al. Flexor tendon wound healing in vitro: the effect of lactate on tendon cell proliferation and collagen production. J Hand Surg [Am] 2001;26:847–854.
Duran RH, Houser RG. Controlled passive motion following flexor tendon repair in zones II and III. In AAOS Symposium on Flexor Tendon Surgery in the Hand. CV Mosby, St. Louis, 1975.
Gelberman RH, et al. The excursion and deformation of repaired flexor tendons treated with protected early motion. J Hand Surg [Am] 1986;11:106–110.
Wang AW, Gupta A. Early motion after flexor tendon surgery. Hand Clin 1996;12:43–55.
Goldfarb CA, et al. The effect of variations in applied rehabilitation force on collagen concentration and maturation at the intrasynovial flexor tendon repair site. J Hand Surg. [Am] 2001;26:841–846.
Boyer MI, et al. Intrasynovial flexor tendon repair. An experimental study comparing low and high levels of in vivo force during rehabilitation in canines. J Bone Joint Surg Am 2001;83A:891–899.
Farkas LG, Lindsay WK. Digital flexor tendon graft healing: pseudosheath and functional return. Surg Forum 1979;30:539–541.
Lane JM, Black J, Bora Jr FW. Gliding function following flexor-tendon injury. A biomechanical study of rat tendon function. J Bone Joint Surg Am 1976;58:985–990.
Peterson WW, et al. Effect of flexor sheath integrity on tendon gliding: a biomechanical and histologic study. J Orthop Res 1986;4:458–465.
Matthews P. The pathology of flexor tendon repair. Hand 1979;11:233–242.
Matthews P, Richards H. Factors in the adherence of flexor tendon after repair: an experimental study in the rabbit. J Bone Joint Surg Br 1976;58:230–236.
Strickland JW. Flexor tendon injuries. Part 1. Anatomy, physiology, biomechanics, healing, and adhesion formation around a repaired tendon. Orthop Rev 1986;15:632–645.
Tonkin MA. Primary flexor tendon repair: surgical techniques based on the anatomy and biology of the flexor tendon system. World J Surg 1991;15:452–457.
Szabo RM, Younger E. Effects of indomethacin on adhesion formation after repair of zone II tendon lacerations in the rabbit. J Hand Surg [Am] 1990;15:480–483.
Kapetanos G. The effect of the local corticosteroids on the healing and biomechanical properties of the partially injured tendon. Clin Orthop 1982;163:170–179.
Peterson WW, et al. Effect of various methods of restoring flexor sheath integrity on the formation of adhesions after tendon injury. J Hand Surg [Am] 1990;15:48–56.
Cooney WP, et al. Management of acute flexor tendon injury in the hand. Instr Course Lect 1985;34:373–381.
Brunelli G, Vigasio A, Brunelli F. Slip-knot flexor tendon suture in Zone II allowing immediate mobilization. Hand 1983;15:352–358.
Wada A, et al. Comparison of postoperative early active mobilization and immobilization in vivo utilising a four-strand flexor tendon repair. J Hand Surg [Br] 2001;26:301–306.
Savage R. The influence of wrist position on the minimum force required for active movement of the interphalangeal joints. J Hand Surg [Br] 1988;13:262–268.
McGrouther DA, Ahmed MR. Flexor tendon excursions in “no-man’s land.” Hand 1981;13:129–141.
Chow JA, et al. A combined regimen of controlled motion following flexor tendon repair in “no man’s land”. Plast Reconstr Surg 1987;79:447–455.
May EJ, Silfverskiold KL, Sollerman CJ. Controlled mobilization after flexor tendon repair in zone II: a prospective comparison of three methods. J Hand Surg [Am] 1992;17:942–952.
Adolfsson L, et al. The effects of a shortened postoperative mobilization programme after flexor tendon repair in zone II. J Hand Surg [Br] 1996;21:67–71.
Edinburg M, Widgerow AD, Biddulph SL. Early postoperative mobilization of flexor tendon injuries using a modification of the Kleinert technique. J Hand Surg [Am] 1987;12:34–38.
Gault DT. A review of repaired flexor tendons. J Hand Surg [Br] 1987;12:321–325.
Hagberg L, Selvik G. Tendon excursion and dehiscence during early controlled mobilization after flexor tendon repair in zone II: an x-ray stereophotogrammetric analysis. J Hand. Surg [Am] 1991;16:669–680.
Silfverskiold KL, May EJ. Gap formation after flexor tendon repair in zone II. Results with a new controlled motion programme. Scand J Plast Reconstr Surg Hand Surg 1993;27:263–268.
Allen BN, et al. Ruptured flexor tendon tenorrhaphies in zone II: repair and rehabilitation. J Hand Surg [Am] 1987;12:18–21.
Steelman P. Treatment of flexor tendon injuries: therapist’s commentary. J Hand Ther 1999;12:149–151.
Hatanaka H, et al. Aggressive active mobilization following zone II flexor tendon repair using a two-strand heavy-gauge locking loop technique. J Orthop Sci 2002;7:457–461.
Rosenthal EA. The extensor tendons: anatomy and management. In Hunter JM, Mackin EJ, Callahan AD, eds., Rehabilitation of the Hand: Surgery and Therapy. CV Mosby, St. Louis, MO, 1984, pp. 519–564.
Newport ML, Blair WF, Steyers Jr CM. Long-term results of extensor tendon repair. J. Hand Surg [Am] 1990;15:961–966.
Stack G. Mallet finger. Lancet 1968;2:1303.
Evans RB. An update on extensor tendon management. In Hunter JM, Mackin EJ, Callahan AD, eds., Rehabilitation of the Hand: Surgery and Therapy. CV Mosby, St. Louis, MO, 1984, pp. 565–608.
Rayan GM, Mullins PT. Skin necrosis complicating mallet finger splinting and vascularity of the distal interphalangeal joint overlying skin. J Hand Surg [Am] 1987;12:548–552.
Abouna JM, Brown H. The treatment of mallet finger. The results in a series of 148 consecutive cases and a review of the literature. Br J Surg 1968;55:653–667.
Stack HG. A modified splint for mallet finger. J Hand Surg [Br] 1986;11:263.
Stern PJ, Kastrup JJ. Complications and prognosis of treatment of mallet finger. J Hand. Surg [Am] 1988;13:329–334.
Warren RA, Kay NR, Norris SH. The microvascular anatomy of the distal digital extensor tendon. J Hand Surg [Br] 1988;13:161–163.
Evans D, Weightman B. The Pipflex splint for treatment of mallet finger. J Hand Surg. [Br] 1988;13:156–158.
Patel MR, Desai SS, Bassini-Lipson L. Conservative management of chronic mallet finger. J Hand Surg [Am] 1986;11:570–573.
Garberman SF, Diao E, Peimer CA. Mallet finger: results of early versus delayed closed treatment. J Hand Surg [Am] 1994;19:850–852.
Brzezienski MA, Schneider LH. Extensor tendon injuries at the distal interphalangeal joint. Hand Clin 1995;11:373–386.
Auchincloss JM. Mallet-finger injuries: a prospective, controlled trial of internal and external splintage. Hand 1982;14:168–173.
Coons MS, Green SM. Boutonniere deformity. Hand Clin 1995;11:387–402.
Crosby CA, Wehbe MA. Early motion after extensor tendon surgery. Hand Clin 1996;12:57–64.
Okafor B, et al. Mallet deformity of the finger. Five-year follow-up of conservative treatment. J Bone Joint Surg Br 1997;79:544–547.
Hung LK, et al. Early controlled active mobilization with dynamic splintage for treatment of extensor tendon injuries. J Hand Surg [Am] 1990;15:251–257.
O’Dwyer FG, Quinton DN. Early mobilization of acute middle slip injuries. J Hand Surg. [Br] 1990;15:404–406.
Saldana MJ, et al. Results of acute zone III extensor tendon injuries treated with dynamic extension splinting. J Hand Surg [Am] 1991;16:1145–1150.
Walsh MT, et al. Early controlled motion with dynamic splinting versus static splinting for zones III and IV extensor tendon lacerations: a preliminary report. J Hand Ther 1994;7:232–236.
Evans RB. Immediate active short arc motion following extensor tendon repair. Hand. Clin 1995;11:483–512.
Lovett WL, McCalla MA. Management and rehabilitation of extensor tendon injuries. Orthop Clin North Am 1983;14:811–826.
Browne Jr EZ, Ribik CA. Early dynamic splinting for extensor tendon injuries. J Hand. Surg [Am] 1989;14:72–76.
Chow JA, et al. A comparison of results of extensor tendon repair followed by early controlled mobilization versus static immobilization. J Hand Surg [Br] 1989;14:18–20.
Ip WY, Chow SP. Results of dynamic splintage following extensor tendon repair. J Hand. Surg [Br] 1997;22:283–287.
Strickland JW. Development of flexor tendon surgery: twenty-five years of progress. J. Hand Surg [Am] 2000;25:214–235.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2006 Humana Press Inc., Totowa, NJ
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Stephens, P.C., Dona, E., Niechoda, B., Clarke, T., Gianoutsos, M.P. (2006). Tendons of the Hand. In: Walsh, W.R. (eds) Repair and Regeneration of Ligaments, Tendons, and Joint Capsule. Orthopedic Biology and Medicine. Humana Press. https://doi.org/10.1385/1-59259-942-7:049
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1385/1-59259-942-7:049
Publisher Name: Humana Press
Print ISBN: 978-1-58829-174-5
Online ISBN: 978-1-59259-942-4
eBook Packages: MedicineMedicine (R0)