Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Heterogeneity in sales districts: Beyond individual-level predictors of satisfaction and performance

  • Published:
Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

This article examines the influence of heterogeneity within a sales unit on the unit’s satisfaction and performance.Sales unit refers to a set of salespersons working out of the same office and for the same supervisor, andheterogenity refers to salespersons’ dispersion or variance on key dimensions. Specifically, drawing on theories in social psychology, the authors study the influence of sales unit heterogeneity in terms of (1) demographic characteristics (e.g., gender dispersion), (2) skills and rewards (e.g., reward dispersion), and (3) goal orientations (e.g., learning orientation dispersion) on a sales unit’s performance and job satisfaction levels. The hypotheses developed are tested using data from a study involving 476 salespeople belonging to 105 sales units in a large organization. The authors find that the focal heterogeneity variables account for nearly 25 percent of the total variance explained by the full set of independent variables included in the model.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Ames, Carole and Jennifer Archer. 1988. “Achievement Goals in the Classroom: Students’ Learning Strategies and Motivation Processes.”Journal of Educational Psychology 80 (September): 260–267.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ancona, Deborah G. and David F. Caldwell. 1988. “Beyond Task and Maintenance: Defining External Functions in Groups.”Group and Organization Studies 13:468–494.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Aries, Elizabeth. 1976. “Interaction Patterns and Themes of Male, Female and Mixed Groups.”Small Group Behavior 7 (February): 7–18.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bantel, Karen A. and Susan E. Jackson. 1989. “Top Management and Innovations in Banking: Does the Composition of the Top Team Make a Difference?”Strategic Management Journal 10 (Summer): 107–124.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bettencourt, B. Ann, Marilynn B. Brewer, Marian Rogers Croak, and Norman Miller. 1992. “Cooperation and the Reduction of Intergroup Bias: The Role of Reward Structure and Social Orientation.”Journal of Experimental Social Psychology. 28:301–319.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bond, Charles F., Jr. 1982. “Social Facilitation: A Self-Presentational View.”Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 42 (6): 1042–1050.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brown, Steven P. and Robert A. Peterson. 1994. “The Effect of Effort on Sales Performance and Job Satisfaction.”Journal of Marketing 58 (April): 70–80.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Butler, R. 1993. “Effects of Task and Ego-Achievement Goals on Information-Seeking during Task Engagement.”Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 65:18–31.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Churchill, Gilbert A., Jr., Neil M. Ford, and Orville C. Walker, Jr. 1983. “Organizational Climate and Job Satisfaction in the Salesforce.”Journal of Marketing Research 13 (November): 323–332.

    Google Scholar 

  • Colarelli, Stephen M. and Amy L. Boos. 1992. “Sociometric and Ability-Based Assignment to Work Groups: Some Implications for Personnel Selection.”Journal of Organizational Behavior 13 (2): 187–196.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Craig, Jane M. and Carolyn W. Sherif. 1986. “The Effectiveness of Men and Women in Problem-Solving Groups as a Function of Group Gender Composition.”Sex Roles 14 (April): 453–466.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cron, William L. 1984. “Industrial Salesperson Development: A Career Stages Perspective.”Journal of Marketing 48 (Fall): 41–52.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • — and John W. Slocum, Jr. 1986. “The Influence of Career Stages on Salespeople’s Job Attitudes, Work Perceptions and Performance.”Journal of Marketing Research 23 (May): 119–129.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • — Alan J. Dubinsky, and Ronald E. Michaels. 1988. “The Influence of Career Stages on Components of Salesperson Motivation.”Journal of Marketing 52 (January): 78–92.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Deutsch, Morton. 1949. “A Theory of Competition and Cooperation.”Human Relations 2:129–152.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dillon, William R. and Matthew Goldstein. 1984.Multivariate Analysis: Methods and Applications. New York: John Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dweck, Carol S. and Ellen L. Leggett. 1988. “A Social-Cognitive Approach to Motivation and Personality.”Psychological Review 95 (2): 256–273.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Elder, Glen H. 1975. “Age Differentiation and the Life Course.”Annual Review of Sociology 1 (1): 65–190.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Elliot, Andrew J. and Marcy A. Church. 1997. “A Hierarchical Model of Approach and Avoidance Achievement Motivation.”Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 72 (1): 218–232.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • — and Judith M. Harackiewicz. 1996. “Approach and Avoidance Achievement Goals and Intrinsic Motivation: A Mediational Analysis.”Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 70 (3): 461–462.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ely, Robin J. 1994. “The Effects of Organizational Demographics and Social Identity on Relationships Among Profession Women.”Administrative Science Quarterly 39 (2): 203–238.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Farr, James L., David A. Hofmann, and Kathleen L. Ringenbach. 1993. “Goal Orientation and Action Control Theory: Implications for Industrial and Organizational Psychology.” InInternational Review of Industrial and Organizational Psychology Eds. C. L. Cooper and I. T. Robertson. New York: John Wiley, 139–232.

    Google Scholar 

  • Festinger, Leon. 1954. “A Theory of Social Comparison Processes.”Human Relations 7 (May): 117–140.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fields, Dail L. and Terry C. Blum. 1997. “Employee Satisfaction in Work Groups With Different Gender Composition”Journal of Organizational Behavior 18 (2): 181–196.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hackman, Richard J. and Greg R. Oldham. 1980.Work Redesign. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Harackiewicz, Judith M., Kenneth E. Barron, Suzanne M. Carter, Alan T. Lehto, and Andrew J. Elliot. 1997. “Predictors and Consequences of Achievement Goals in the College Classroom: Maintaining Interest and Making the Grade.”Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 73 (6): 1284–1295.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jackson, Susan E., Joan F. Brett, Valerie I. Sessa, Dawn M. Cooper, Johan A. Julin, and Karl Peyronnin. 1991. “Some Differences Make a Difference: Individual Dissimilarity and Group Heterogeneity as Correlates of Recruitment, Promotions, and Turnover.”Journal of Applied Psychology 76 (5): 675–689.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Johnston, Jack and John DiNardo. 1997.Econometric Methods. New York: McGraw-Hill.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kent, R. N. and J. E. McGrath. 1969. “Task and Group Characteristics as Factors Influencing Group Performance.”Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 5 (4): 429–440.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kohli, Ajay K. and Bernard J. Jaworski. 1994. “The Influence of Coworker Feedback on Salespeople.”Journal of Marketing 58 (October): 82–94.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • — Tasadduq A. Shervani, and Goutam N. Challagalla. 1998. “Learning and Performance Orientation of Salespeople: The Role of Supervisors.”Journal of Marketing Research 35:263–274.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lawler, Edward E. 1973.Motivation in Work Organizations. Monterrey, CA: Brooks/Cole.

    Google Scholar 

  • Leonard, Richard 1990. “ESPOs Bring Participation Home.”Management Review 79 (11): 45–49.

    Google Scholar 

  • Leventhal, G. S. 1976. “The Distribution of Rewards and Resources in Organizations.” InAdvances in Experimental Social Psychology, Vol. 9. Ed. Leonard Berkowitz. New York: Academic Press, 91–131.

    Google Scholar 

  • McCann, Douglas C., Thomas M. Ostrom, and Linda K. Tyner. 1985. “Person Perception in Heterogeneous Groups.”Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 49 (December): 1449–1459.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McGrath, Joseph E. and David Brinberg. 1983. “External Validity and the Research Process: A Comment on the Calder/Lynch Dialogue.”Journal of Consumer Research 10 (June): 115–124.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Milliken, Frances and Luis L. Martins. 1996. “Searching for Common Threads: Understanding the Multiple Effects of Diversity in Organizational Groups.”Academy of Management Journal 21 (2): 402–433.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mitchell, Daniel J. B., David Lewin, and Edward E. Lawler III. 1990. “Alternative Pay Systems, Firm Performance, and Productivity.” InPaying for Productivity: A Look at the Evidence. Ed. Alan S. Blinder. Washington, DC: Brookings Institution, 15–88.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nunnally, Jum C. 1978.Psychometric Theory. New York: McGraw-Hill.

    Google Scholar 

  • O’Reilly, Charles A., III., David F. Caldwell, and William P. Barnett. 1989. “Work Group Demography, Social Integration, and Turnover.”Administrative Science Quarterly 34 (1): 21–37.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Peterson, Mark F. 1983. “Co-Workers and Hospital Staff’s Work Attitudes: Individual Difference Moderators.”Nursing Research 32 (2): 115–121.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pfeffer, Jeffrey. 1983. “Organizational Demography.” InResearch in Organizational Behavior, Vol. 5. Eds. L. L. Cummings and Barry M. Staw. Greenwich, CT: JAI, 299–357.

    Google Scholar 

  • — and Allison Davis-Blake. 1992. “Salary Dispersion, Location in the Salary Distribution, and Turnover Among College Administrators.”Industrial and Labor Relations Review 45 (4): 753–763.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • — and Nancy Langton. 1988. “Wage Inequality and the Organization of Work: The Case of Academic Departments.”Administrative Science Quarterly 33:588–606.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • — and — 1993. “The Effect of Wage Dispersion on Satisfaction, Productivity, and Working Collaboratively: Evidence from College and University Faculty.”Administrative Science Quarterly 38 (3): 382–407.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pierce, Charles A. 1998. “Factors Associated With Participating in a Romantic Relationship in a Work Environment.”Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 28 (18): 1712–1730.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Salancik, Gerald R. and Jeffrey Pfeffer. 1978. “A Social Information Processing Approach to Job Attitudes and Task Design.”Administrative Science Quarterly 23 (2): 224–253.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sauers, Daniel A. and Ken Bass. 1990. “Sustaining the Positive Effects of Goal Setting: The Positive Influence, of Peer Competition.”Akron Business and Economic Review 21 (4): 30–40.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schneider, Benjamin. 1983. “Interactional Psychology and Organizational Behavior.” InResearch in Organizational Behavior. Eds. L. L. Cummings and B. M. Staw. Greenwich, CT: JAI, 1–131.

    Google Scholar 

  • —. 1987. “The People Make the Place.”Personnel Psychology 40:437–454.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sujan, Harish, Barton Weitz, and Nirmalya Kumar. 1994. “Learning Orientation, Working Smart, and Effective Selling.”Journal of Marketing 58 (July): 39–52.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Super, Donald, Robin S. Zelkowitz, and Albert S. Thompson. 1981.Ccareer Development Inventory: Adult Form I. New York: Teacher’s College, Columbia University.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tesser, A. 1988. “Toward a Self Evaluation Maintenance Model of Social Behavior.” InAdvances in Experimental Social Psychology, Vol. 21. Ed. L. Berkowitz. San Diego, CA: Academic Press, 181–227.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tyagi, Pradeep K. 1985. “Organizational Climate, Inequities, and Attractiveness of Salesperson Rewards.”Journal of Personal Selling & Sales Management 5 (2): 31–37.

    Google Scholar 

  • VandeWalle, Don and Larry L. Cummings. 1997. “A Test of the Influence of goal Orientation on the Feedback Seeking Process.”Journal of Applied Psychology, 82 (3): 390–400.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vroom, Victor H. and Bernd Pahl. 1971. “Relationship Between Age and Risk Taking Among Managers.”Journal of Applied Psychology 55 (5): 399–405.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Weinstein, Alan G. and Robert L. Holzbach. 1973. “Impact of Individual Differences, Reward Distribution, and Task Structure on Productivity in a Simulated Work Environment.”Journal of Applied Psychology 58 (3): 296–301.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wheeler, Ladd. 1991. “A Brief History of Social Comparison Theory.” InSocial Comparison: Contemporary Theory and Research. Eds., Jerry Suls and Thomas Ashby Wills. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum, 3–21.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wiersema, Margarethe F. and Allan Bird. 1993. “Organizational Demography in Japanese Firms: Group Heterogeneity, Individual Dissimilarity, and Top Management Team Turnover.”Academy of Management Journal 36 (October): 996–1025.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wyer, Robert S. and Christine Malinowski. 1972. “Effects of Sex and Achievement Level Upon Individualism and Competitiveness in Social Interaction.”Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 8 (4): 303–314.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zenger, Todd R. and Barbara S. Lawrence. 1989. “Organizational Demorgraphy: The Differential Effects of Age.”Academy of Management Journal 32 (2): 353–376.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, USA

    R. Venkatesh

  2. Georgia Institute of Technology, Georgia, USA

    Goutam Challagalla

  3. Emory University, Atlanta, USA

    Ajay K. Kohli

Authors
  1. R. Venkatesh
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Goutam Challagalla
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Ajay K. Kohli
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Additional information

R. Venkatesh is an assistant professor of business administration at the University of Pittsburgh’s Katz Graduate School of Business. His articles on product bundling, cobranding and sales force management have appeared or are forthcoming in theInternational Journal of Research in Marketing, Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, Journal of Business, Journal of Marketing, Journal of Marketing Research, andMarketing Science.

Goutam Challagalla is an associate marketing professor at Georgia Tech. He received his Ph.D. in marketing from the University of Texas at Austin, where he won the Outstanding Dissertation Award. He has published articles on sales management and marketing theory in marketing and psychology journals.

Ajay K. Kohli is Isaac Stiles Hopkins professor of marketing at Emory University’s Goizueta Business School. During 2000–2001, he is on leave from Emory and working at the Monitor Company. He has published in several journals on market orientation, sales management, and organizational buying behavior.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Venkatesh, R., Challagalla, G. & Kohli, A.K. Heterogeneity in sales districts: Beyond individual-level predictors of satisfaction and performance. JAMS 29, 238–254 (2001). https://doi.org/10.1177/03079459994614

Download citation

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/03079459994614

Keywords

Search

Navigation