Abstract
Opportunity identification represents a unique entrepreneurial behavior yet its processes and dynamics remain mysterious. Entrepreneurial alertness, a distinctive set of perceptual and information-processing skills, has been advanced as the cognitive engine driving the opportunity identification process. To date, empirical support has been equivocal; however, these early studies suffer from fundamental mistakes in theory and method. These mistakes are examined and addressed. A research agenda for the systematic and conceptually sound study of entrepreneurial alertness and opportunity identification is outlined.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Aldrich, H. E., G. Kalleberg, P. Marsden and J. Cassell, 1989, 'In Pursuit of Evidence: Sampling Procedures for Locating New Businesses', Journal of Business Venturing 4(6), 367-387.
Aldrich, H. E. and C. Zimmer, 1986, 'Entrepreneurship Through Social Networks', in D. L. Sexton and R. W. Smilor (eds.), The Art And Science of Entrepreneurship, Cambridge, MA: Ballinger, pp. 3-23.
Amabile, T., 1983, The Social Psychology of Creativity, New York: Springer-Verlag.
Argyris, C. and D. A. Schon, 1978, Organizational Learning, Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
Bargh, J. A., 1989, 'Conditional Automaticity: Varieties of Automatic Influence in Social Perception and Thought', in J. S. Uleman and J. A. Bargh (eds.), Unintended Thought, New York: Guilford, pp. 3-51.
Bargh, J. A. and F. Pratto, 1986, 'Individual Construct Accessibility and Perceptual Selection', Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 22, 293-311.
Berger, P. L. and T. Luckman, 1967, The Social Construction of Reality, New York: Anchor Books.
Bonner, S. E. and N. Pennington, N., 1991, 'Cognitive Processes and Knowledge as Determinants of Auditor Expertise', Journal of Accounting Literature 10, 1-50.
Busenitz, L. W., 1996, 'Research on Entrepreneurial Alertness', Journal of Small Business Management 34(4), 35-44.
Camerer, D. F. and E. J. Johnson, 1991, 'The Process-Performance Paradox in Expert Judgment: How Can the Experts Know So Much and Predict So Badly?' in K. A. Ericsson and J. Smith (eds.), Towards a General Theory of Expertise: Prospects and Limits, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 195-217.
Carsrud, A. L., 1988, 'Social Science Disciplines and Entrepreneurship Research', in R. Peterson and K. Ainslie (eds.), Understanding Entrepreneurship, London, ON, Canada: National Centre for Management Research and Development.
Carter, N. M., W. B. Gartner and P. D. Reynolds, 1996, 'Exploring Startup Event Sequences', Journal of Business Venturing 11(3), 151-167.
Chase, W. G. and H. A. Simon, 1973, 'The Mind's Eye in Chess', in W. G. Chase (ed.), Visual Information Processing, New York: Academic Press, pp. 215-281.
Chi, M. T. H., R. Glaser and E. Rees, 1982, 'Expertise in Problem Solving', in R. S. Sternberg (ed.), Advances in the Psychology of Human Intelligence, Vol. 1, Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum, pp. 1-75.
Cooper, A. C. and W. C. Dunkelberg, 1986, 'Entrepreneurship and Paths to Business Ownership', Strategic Management Journal 7(1), 53-69.
Cooper, A. C., T. B. Folta and C. Woo, 1995, 'Entrepreneurial Information Search', Journal of Business Venturing 10, 107-120.
Cowan, D. A., 1986, 'Developing a Process Model of Problem Recognition', Academy of Management Review 11, 763-776.
Crawford, C. M., 1980, 'The Idea Evaluation Function in Smaller Firms', Journal of Small Business Management 18(2), 31-40.
Csikszentmihalyi, M., 1996, Creativity, New York: HarperCollins.
Drucker, P. F., 1985, Innovation and Entrepreneurship, New York: Harper and Row.
Elliott, C. S. and R. B. Archibald, 1989, 'Subjective Framing and Attitude Towards Risk', Journal of Economic Psychology 10, 321-328.
Ericsson, K. A. and H. A. Simon, 1984, Protocol Analysis: Verbal Reports as Data, Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Fiske, S. T., 1993, 'Social Cognition and Social Perception', Annual Review of Psychology 44, 155-194.
Fiske, S. T. and S. E. Taylor, 1991, Social Cognition, 2nd ed., New York: McGraw Hill.
Gaglio, C. M., 1997a, 'Opportunity Identification; Review, Critique and Suggested Research Directions', in J.A. Katz (ed.), Advances In Entrepreneurship, Firm Emergence and Growth, Vol. 3, pp. 139-202
Gaglio, C. M., 1997b, The Entrepreneurial Opportunity Identification Process, Ph.D. Thesis, University of Chicago.
Gaglio, C. M. and R. P. Taub, 1992, 'Entrepreneurs and Opportunity Recognition', in N. C. Churchill, S. Birley, W. D. Bygrave, D. Muzyka, C. Wahlbin and W. E. Wetzel, Jr. (eds.), Frontiers of Entrepreneurship Research, Wellesley, MA: Babson College.
Gartner, W. B., J. W. Carland, F. Hoy and J. A. C. Carland, 1988, 'Who Is an Entrepreneur? Is the Wrong Question', Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice 12(4), 11-33.
Gehiselliee, E., J. P. Campbell and S. Zedeck, 1981, Measurement Theory for the Behavioral Sciences, San Francisco: Freeman.
Gilad, B., S. Kaish and J. Ronen, 1988, 'The Entrepreneurial Way with Information', in S. Maital (ed.), Applied Behavioral Economics 2, 481-503
Gunderson, G., 1990, 'Thinking About Entrepreneurs: Models, Assumptions and Evidence', in C. A. Kent (ed.), Entrepreneurship Education, New York: Quorum Books, pp. 41-52.
Herron, L. and H. Sapienza, 1992, 'The Entrepreneur and the Initiation of New Venture Launch Activities', Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice 17(1), 49-55.
Higgins, E. T. and G. King, 1981, 'Accessibility of Social Constructs: Information Processing Consequences of Individual and Contextual Variability', in N. Cantor and J. F. Kihlstrom (eds.), Personality, Cognition and Social Interaction, Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum, pp. 69-121.
Highhouse, S. and P. Yuce, 1996, 'Perspectives, Perceptions and Risk-Taking Behavior', Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes 65(2), 159-167.
Isenberg, D. J., 1986, 'Thinking and Managing: A Verbal Protocol Analysis of Managerial Problem Solving', Academy of Management Journal 29(4), 775-778.
Johnson, P. E., K. Jamal and R. G. Berryman, 1991, 'Effects of Framing on Auditors Decisions', Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes 50(1), 75-105.
Kahneman, D. and A. Tversky, 1979, 'Prospect Theory: An Analysis of Decision Under Risk', Econometrica 47(2), 263-291.
Kahneman, D. and A. Tversky, 1986, 'Choices, Values, and Frames', American Psychologist 39(4), 341-350.
Kaish, S. and B. Gilad, 1991, 'Characteristics of Opportunities Search of Entrepreneurs Versus Executives: Sources, Interests, General Alertness', Journal of Business Venturing 6(1), 45-61.
Katz, D. and R. L. Kahn, 1978, The Social Psychology of Organizations, New York: Wiley.
Katz, J. and W. B Gartner, 1988, 'Properties of Emerging Organizations', Academy of Management Review 13(3), 429-441.
Kiesler, S. and L. Sproull, 1982, 'Managerial Response to Changing Environments: Perspectives on Problem Sensing from Social Cognition', Administrative Science Quarterly 27, 548-570.
Kirzner, I., 1973, Competition and Entrepreneurship, Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Kirzner, I., 1979, Perception, Opportunity, and Profit, Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Kirzner, I., 1980, 'The Primacy of Entrepreneurial Discovery', in A. Seldon (ed.), The Prime Mover of Progress, London: The Institute of Economic Affairs, pp. 5-30.
Kirzner, I., 1985, Discovery and the Capitalist Process, Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Kirzner, I., 1992, 'Entrepreneurship, Uncertainty and Austrian Economics', in B. J. Caldwell and S. Boehn (eds.), Austrian Economics: Tensions and New Directions, Boston, MA: Kluwer Academic Publishers, pp. 85-102.
Koller, R. H., 1988, 'On the Source of Entrepreneurial Ideas', in B. A. Kirchoff, W. Long, W. McMullan, K. H. Vesper and W. E. Wetzel (eds.), Frontiers of Entrepreneurship Research, Wellesley, MA: Babson, pp. 194-207.
Long, N., 1979, 'Multiple Enterprise in the Central Highlands of Peru', in S. M. Greenfield, A. Strickon and R. T. Aubey (eds.), Entrepreneurs in Cultural Context, Albuquerque, NM: University of New Mexico Press, pp. 123-158.
Long, W. and W. E. McMullan, 1984, 'Mapping The New Venture Opportunity Identification Process', in J. A. Hornaday, F. A. Tardley, J. A. Timmons and K. H. Vesper (eds.), Frontiers of Entrepreneurship Research, Wellesley, MA: Babson College, pp. 567-591.
Long, W. and J. B. Graham, 1988, 'Opportunity Identification Process: Revisited', in G. E. Hills, R. W. Laforge and B. J. Parker (eds.), Research and the Marketing/Entrepreneurship Interface, Chicago: Office of Entrepreneurial Studies, University of Illinois, Chicago.
March, J. G. and H. A. Simon, 1958, Organizations, New York: Wiley.
McClelland, D. C., 1976, The Achieving Society, New York: Irvington Press.
Mitchell, T. R. and L. R. Beach, 1990, 'Toward An Understanding of Intuitive and Automatic Decision Making', Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes 47, 1-20.
Pekerti, A., 1985, The Personal Networks of Successful Entrepreneurs, Ph.D. Thesis, University of Southern California.
Peterson, R. T., 1988, 'An Analysis of New Product Ideas in Small Business', Journal of Small Business Management 26, 25-31.
Peters, T., 1979, 'Leadership: Sad Facts and Silver Linings', Harvard Business Review 57(6), 164-172.
Pounds, W. F., 1969, 'The Process of Problem-Finding', Industrial Management Review 11(1), 1-19.
Reynolds, P. D., 1991, 'Sociology and Entrepreneurship: Concepts and Contributions', Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice 16(2), 47-71.
Roese, N. J. and J. M. Olson (eds.), 1995, What Might Have Been: The Social Psychology of Counterfactual Thinking, Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Ronen, J. (ed.), 1983, Entrepreneurship, Lexington, MA: Lexington Books.
Sandberg, W. R., D. M. Schweiger and C. W. Hofer, 1987, 'Determining Venture Capitalists Decision Criteria', in B. Kirchoff, O. J. Krasner and K. H. Vesper (eds.), Frontiers of Entrepreneurship Research, Wellesley, MA: Babson College.
Schumpeter, J. A., 1971, 'The Fundamental Phenomenon of Economic Development', in P. Kilby (ed.), Entrepreneurship and Economic Development, New York: Free Press.pp. 43-70.
Shaver, K. G. and L. R. Scott, 1991, 'Person, Process, Choice: The Psychology of New Venture Creation', Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice 16(2), 23-45.
Sherman, S. J., C. M. Judd and B. Park, 1989, 'Social Cognition', Annual Review of Psychology 40, 218-326.
Showers, C. and N. Cantor, 1985, 'Social Cognition: A Look at Motivated Strategies', Annual Review of Psychology 36, 275-305.
Slovic, P., 1972, 'From Shakespeare to Simon: Speculations and Some Evidence about Man's Ability to Process Information', Oregon Research Institute Bulletin, 12.
Singh, R. P., G. E. Hills and G. T. Lumpkin, 1999, 'New Venture Ideas and Entrepreneurial Opportunities: Understanding the Process of Opportunity Recognition', Proceedings, 1999 United States Association for Small Business and Entrepreneurship, pp. 657-671.
Spencer, B. A., 1990, 'Reframing Techniques for Creative Strategy Development', SAM Advanced Management Journal 55(1), 4-8.
Stevenson, H. H. and J. C. Jarillo, 1990, 'A Paradigm of Entrepreneurship: Entrepreneurial Management', Strategic Management Journal 11, 17-27.
Stevenson, H. H., M. J. Robert and H. I. Grousbeck, 1998, New Business Ventures and The Entrepreneur, 5th Ed., Burr Ridge, IL: Irwin Press.
Sudman, S., M. G. Sirken and C. D. Cowan, 1988, 'Sampling Rare and Elusive Populations', Science 240, 991-996.
Timmons, J. A., 1999, New Venture Creation, Boston, MA: Irwin McGraw-Hill.
Van de Ven, A. H., 1980, 'Early Planning, Implementation, and Performance of New Organizations', in J. R. Kimberly and R. H. Miles (eds.), The Organizational Life Cycle, San Francisco: Jossey Bass.
Venkataraman, S., 1997, 'The Distinctive Domain of Entrepreneurship Research', in J. A. Katz (ed.), Advances in Entrepreneurship, Firm Emergence and Growth, Vol. 3, Greenwich, CT: JAI Press, pp. 119-138.
Weick, K. E., 1979, 'Cognitive Processes in Organizations', in B. M. Staw (ed.), Research in Organizational Behavior, Vol. 1, Greenwich, CT: JAI Press, pp. 41-74.
Weick, K. E., 1995, Sensemaking in Organizations, Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Gaglio, C.M., Katz, J.A. The Psychological Basis of Opportunity Identification: Entrepreneurial Alertness. Small Business Economics 16, 95–111 (2001). https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1011132102464
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1011132102464