We have now arrived at the great sub-kingdom of the Vertebrata, and will commence with the lowest class, namely Fishes. The males of Plagiostomous fishes (sharks, rays) and of Chimæroid fishes are provided with claspers which serve to retain the female, like the various structures possessed by so many of the lower animals. Besides the claspers, the males of many rays have clusters of strong sharp spines on their heads, and several rows along “the upper outer surface of their pectoral fins.” These are present in the males of some species, which have the other parts of their bodies smooth. They are only temporarily developed during the breeding-season; and Dr. Günther suspects that they are brought into action as prehensile organs by the doubling inwards and downwards of the two sides of the body. It is a remarkable fact that the females and not the males of some species, as of Raia clavata, have their backs studded with large hook-formed spines.

Owing to the element which fishes inhabit, little is known about their courtship, and not much about their battles. The male stickleback (Gasterosteus leiurus) has been described as “mad with delight” when the female comes out of her hiding-place and surveys the nest which he has made for her. “He darts round “her in every direction, then to his accumulated ma-“terials for the nest, then back again in an instant; “and as she does not advance he endeavours to push “her with his snout, and then tries to pull her by the “tail and side-spine to the nest.”