Skip to main content Accessibility help
×
Hostname: page-component-7c8c6479df-fqc5m Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-03-29T01:50:55.469Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

Chapter 13 - Wellness in Endocrine and Metabolic Disorders

from Part II - From Illness to Wellness by Organ Systems/Disorders

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  18 September 2020

Waguih William IsHak
Affiliation:
Cedars-Sinai Medical Center and David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California Los Angeles (UCLA)
Get access

Summary

Wellness is a term encompassing many aspects of the human experience, including physical health. Much of the regulation and maintenance of the human body occurs via hormonal expression. The human endocrine organs include the pituitary, adrenals, thyroid, testes, and ovaries, and produce many of the hormones responsible for maintaining homeostasis and optimal cellular function [1]. Many factors can alter hormonal expression, including aging, environmental toxins, disease, nutrition, and even stress [1]. Hormonal imbalances often lead to poorer health outcomes and decreased wellness in the long run. This chapter will give an overview of the most common endocrine disorders, how they impact wellness, and what has been done to improve patient quality of life (QOL).

Type
Chapter
Information
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2020

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Schwartz, ET, Holtorf, K. Hormones in wellness and disease prevention: common practices, current state of the evidence, and questions for the future. Prim Care 2008;35(4): 669705.Google Scholar
Santos, A, Resmini, E, Pascual, C, et al. Psychiatric symptoms in patients with Cushing’s syndrome: prevalence, diagnosis and management. Drugs 2017; 77: 829842.Google Scholar
Arnaldi, G, Angeli, A, Atkinson, AB, et al. Diagnosis and complications of Cushing’s syndrome: a consensus statement. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2003; 88: 55935602.Google Scholar
Nieman, LK. Cushing’s syndrome: update on signs, symptoms and biochemical screening. Eur J Endocrinol 2015; 173: M33M38.Google Scholar
Santos, A, Crespo, I, Aulinas, A, et al. Quality of life in Cushing’s syndrome. Pituitary 2016; 18(2): 95200.Google Scholar
Pivonello, R, De Martino, MC, De Leo, M, et al. Cushing’s disease: the burden of illness. Endocrine 2017; 56: 10.Google Scholar
Alcala, N, Ozkan, S, Kadioglu, P, et al. Evaluation of depression, quality of life and body image in patients with Cushing’s disease. Pituitary 2013; 16: 333340.Google Scholar
Heald, AH, Ghosh, S, Bray, S, et al. Long-term negative impact on quality of life in patients with successfully treated Cushing’s disease. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 2004; 61: 458465.Google Scholar
Starkman, MN, Schteingart, DE. Neuropsychiatric manifestations of patients with Cushing’s syndrome: relationship to cortisol and adrenocorticotropic hormone levels. Arch Intern Med 1981; 141: 215219.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sonino, N, Fava, GA. Psychiatric disorders associated with Cushing’s syndrome: epidemiology, pathophysiology and treatment. CNS Drugs 2001; 15: 361373.Google Scholar
4 Lifestyle Tips for Cushing’s Syndrome. 2016 www.endocrineweb.com/conditions/cushings-syndrome/4-lifestyle-tips-cushings-syndrome (accessed July 9, 2019).Google Scholar
Hickson, RC, Marone, JR. Exercise and inhibition of glucocorticoid-induced muscle atrophy. Exerc Sport Sci Rev 1993; 21(1): 135168.Google Scholar
Carlson, LE, Speca, M, Patel, KD, et al. Mindfulness-based stress reduction in relation to quality of life, mood, symptoms of stress and levels of cortisol, dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate (DHEAS) and melatonin in breast and prostate cancer outpatients. Psychoneuroendocrinology 2004; 29: 448474.Google Scholar
Thirthalli, J, Naveen, GH, Rao, MG, et al. Cortisol and antidepressant effects of yoga. Indian J Psychiatry 2013; 55(3): S405.Google Scholar
Meyer, G. What affects the quality of life in autoimmune Addison’s disease? Horm Metab Res 2013; 45(2): 9295.Google Scholar
Ten, S, New, M, Maclaren, N. Clinical review 130: Addison’s disease. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2001; 86(7): 29092922.Google Scholar
De Herder, WW, van der Lely, AJ. Addisonian crisis and relative adrenal failure. Rev Endocr Metab Disord 2003; 4 (2): 143147.Google Scholar
Michels, A, Michels, N. Addison disease: early detection and treatment principles. Am Fam Physician 2014; 89(7): 563568.Google Scholar
Hunt, PJ, Gurnell, EM, Huppert, FA, et al. Improvement in mood and fatigue after dehydroepiandrosterone replacement in Addison’s disease in a randomized, double blind trial. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2000; 85(12): 46504656.Google Scholar
Ufferman, RC, Schrier, RW. Importance of sodium intake and mineralocorticoid hormone in the impaired water excretion in adrenal insufficiency. J Clin Invest 1972; 51(7): 16391646.Google Scholar
Anderson, DC. Assessment and nutraceutical management of stress-induced adrenal dysfunction. Intregrat Med 2008; 7: 5.Google Scholar
Ronzio, RA. Nutritional support for adrenal function. Am J Nat Med 1998; 5(5): 1217.Google Scholar
Saldanha, CJ, Remage-Healey, L, Schlinger, BA. Synaptocrine signaling: steroid synthesis and action at the synapse. Endocr Rev 2011; 32(4): 532549.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schindler, A, Campagnoli, C, Druckman, R, et al. Classification and pharmacology of progestins. Maturitas 2003; 46: S716.Google Scholar
Stuenkel, CA, Davis, SR, Gompel, A, et al. Treatment of symptoms of the menopause: an Endocrine Society clinical practice guideline. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2015; 100(11): 39754011.Google Scholar
Williams, RE, Levine, KB, Kalilani, L. Menopause-specific questionnaire assessment in US population-based study shows negative impact on health-related quality of life. Maturitas 2009; 62(2): 153159.Google Scholar
Tourgeman, D, Gentzchein, E, Stanczyk, F, et al. Serum and tissue hormone levels of vaginally and orally administered estradiol. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1999; 180(6): 14801483.Google Scholar
Ziel, H, Finkle, W. Increased risk of endometrial carcinoma among users of conjugated estrogens. N Engl J Med 1975; 293(23): 11671170.Google Scholar
Rossow, J, Anderson, G, Prentice, R, et al. Writing group for the Women’s Health Initiative: risks and benefits of estrogen plus progestin in healthy postmenopausal women. JAMA 2002; 288(3): 321333.Google Scholar
Fournier, A, Berrino, F, Clavel-Chapelon, F. Unequal risks for breast cancer associated with different hormone replacement therapies: results from the E3 N cohort study. Breast Cancer Res Treat 2008; 107(1): 103111.Google Scholar
Stahlberg, C, Pedersen, A, Lynge, E, et al. Increased risk of breast cancer following different regimens of hormone replacement therapy frequently used in Europe. Int J Cancer 2004; 109: 721727.Google Scholar
Nelson, HD. Commonly used types of postmenopausal estrogen for treatment of hot flashes. JAMA 2004; 291(13): 16101620.Google Scholar
Durosier-Izart, C, Biver, E, Merminod, F, et al. Peripheral skeleton bone strength is positively correlated with total and dairy protein intakes in healthy postmenopausal women. Am J Clin Nutr 2017; 105(2): 513525.Google Scholar
Purdue-Smithe, AC, Whitcomb, BW, Szegda, KL, et al. Vitamin D and calcium intake and risk of early menopause. Am J Clin Nutr 2017; 105(6): 14931501.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Parazzini, F. Resveratrol, tryptophanum, glycine and vitamin E: a nutraceutical approach to sleep disturbance and irritability in peri-and post-menopause. Minerva Ginecologica 2015; 67(1): 15.Google Scholar
Patade, A, Devareddy, L, Lucas, EA, et al. Flaxseed reduces total and LDL cholesterol concentrations in Native American postmenopausal women. J Women’s Health(Larchmt) 2008; 17(3): 355366.Google Scholar
Kroenke, CH, Caan, BJ, Stefanick, ML, et al. Effects of a dietary intervention and weight change on vasomotor symptoms in the Women’s Health Initiative. Menopause 2012; 19(9): 980.Google Scholar
Vaze, N, Joshi, S. Yoga and menopausal transition. J Midlife Health 2010; 1(2): 56.Google Scholar
Ranabir, S, Reetu, K. Stress and hormones. Indian J Endocrinol Metab 2011; 15(1): 1822.Google Scholar
Molitch, ME, Clemmons, DR, Malozowski, S, et al. Evaluation and treatment of adult growth hormone deficiency: an Endocrine Society clinical practice guideline. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2006; 91(5): 16211634.Google Scholar
Ignatavicius, D, Workman, L. Medical-Surgical Nursing: Patient-Centered Collaborative Care. Philadelphia, PA, WB Saunders; 2016.Google Scholar
Prodam, F, Caputo, M, Belcastro, S, et al. Quality of life, mood disturbances and psychological parameters in adult patients with GH deficiency. Panminerva Medica 2012; 54(4): 323331.Google Scholar
Nyberg, F, Hallberg, M. Growth hormone and cognitive function. Nature Rev. Endocrinol 2013; 9(6): 357365.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wuster, C, Melchinger, U, Eversmann, T, et al. Reduced incidence of side-effects of growth hormone substitution in 404 patients with hypophyseal insufficiency: results of a multicenter indications study. Med Klin 1998; 93(10): 585591.Google Scholar
Chihara, K, Koledova, E, Shimatsu, A, et al. An individualized GH dose regimen for long-term GH treatment in Japanese patients with adult GH deficiency. Eur J Endocrinol 2005; 153(1): 5765.Google Scholar
Hankinson, SE, Willett, WC, Colditz, GA, et al. Circulating concentrations of insulin-like growth factor-1 and risk of breast cancer. Lancet 1998; 351(9113); 13931398.Google Scholar
Palmqvist, R, Hallmans, G, Rinaldi, S, et al. Plasma insulin-like growth factor 1, insulin-like growth factor binding protein 3, and risk of colorectal cancer: a prospective study in northern Sweden. Gut 2002; 50: 642646.Google Scholar
Blethen, SL, Allen, DB, Graves, D, et al. Safety of recombinant deoxyribonucleic acid-derived growth hormone: the National Cooperative Growth Study experience. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1996; 81: 17041710.Google Scholar
Frajese, G, Drake, WM, Loureiro, RA, et al. Hypothalamopituitary surveillance imaging in hypopituitary patients receiving long-term GH replacement therapy. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2001; 86(11): 55725575.Google Scholar
Godfrey, RJ, Madgwick, Z, Whyte, GP. The exercise-induced growth hormone response in athletes. Sports Med 2003; 33(6): 599613.Google Scholar
Lanzi, R, Luzi, L, Caumo, A, et al. Elevated insulin levels contribute to the reduced growth hormone (GH) response to GH-releasing hormone in obese subjects. Metabolism 1999; 48(9): 11521156.Google Scholar
Suminski, RR, Robertson, RJ, Goss, FL. Acute effect of amino acid ingestion and resistance exercise on plasma growth hormone concentration in young men. Int J Sport Nutr 1997; 7(1): 4860.Google Scholar
Kerndt, PR, Naughton, JL, Driscoll, CE, et al. Fasting: the history, pathophysiology and complications. West J Med 1982; 137: 379399.Google Scholar
Astor, MC, Lovas, K, Debowska, A. Epidemiology and health-related quality of life in hypoparathyroidism in Norway. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2016; 101(8): 30453053.Google Scholar
Ben-shlomo, A, Melmed, S. Acromegaly. Endocrinol Metab Clin North Am 2008; 37(1): 101122.Google Scholar
Giustina, A, Chanson, P, Kleinberg, D, et al. Expert consensus document: a consensus on the medical treatment of acromegaly. Nat Rev 2014; 10: 243248.Google Scholar
Rowles, SV, Prieto, L, Badia, X, et al. Quality of life (QOL) in patients with acromegaly is severely impaired: use of novel measure of QOL – acromegaly quality of life questionnaire. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2005; 90(6): 33373341.Google Scholar
Johnson, MD, Woodburn, CJ, Vanle, ML. Quality of life in patients with a pituitary adenoma. Pituitary 2003; 6(2): 8187.Google Scholar
Webb, SM, Badia, X, Surinach, NL, et al. Validity and clinical applicability of the acromegaly quality of life questionnaire, AcroQoL: a 6-month prospective study. Eur J Endocrinol 2006; 155(2): 269277.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Toumpanakis, A, Turnbull, T, Alba-barba, I. Effectiveness of plant-based diets in promoting well-being in the management of type 2 diabetes: a systemic review. BMJ Open Diabetes Res Care 2018; 6(1): e000534.Google Scholar
Roep, B. The role of T-cells in the pathogenesis of type 1 diabetes: from cause to cure. Diabetologia 2003; 46(3): 305321.Google Scholar
Lin, EH, Katon, W, Von Korff, M, et al. Relationship of depression and diabetes self-care, medication adherence, and preventive care. Diabetes Care 2004; 27: 21542160.Google Scholar
Ackerman, R, Finch, E, Brizendine, E, et al. Translating the Diabetes Prevention Program into the community: the DEPLOY pilot study. Am J Prev Med 2008; 35(4): 357363.Google Scholar
Horwitz, JR, Kelly, BD, DiNardo, JE. Wellness incentives in the workplace: cost savings through cost shifting to unhealthy workers. Health Aff (Millwood) 2013; 32(3): 468476.Google Scholar
Pinto, SL, Kumar, K, Partha, G, et al. Pharmacist-provided medication therapy management (MTM) program impacts outcomes for employees with diabetes. Popul Health Manag 2014; 17(1): 2127.Google Scholar
Lyzwinski, LN, Caffery, L, Bambling, M, Edirippulige, S. The Mindfulness App trial for weight, weight-related behaviors, and stress in university students: randomized controlled trial. JMIR Mhealth Uhealth 2019; 7(4): e12210.Google Scholar
IO Sim. Humor intervention program for children with chronic diseases. Appl Nurs Res 2015; 28(4): 404412.Google Scholar
Sidhu, S, Parikh, T, Burman, K. Endrocrine Changes in Obesity. South Dartmouth, MA, MDText.com; 2000.Google Scholar
Heymsfield, SB, Greenberg, AS, Fujioka, K, et al. Recombinant leptin for weight loss in obese and lean adults: a randomized, controlled, dose-escalation trial. JAMA 1999; 282(16): 15681575.Google Scholar
Yamauchi, T, Kamon, J, Waki, H, et al. The fat-derived hormone adiponectin reverses insulin resistance associated with both lipoatrophy and obesity. Nat Med 2001; 7(8): 941946.Google Scholar
Ohashi, K, Kihara, S, Ouchi, N, et al. Adiponectin replenishment ameliorates obesity-related hypertension. Hypertension 2006; 47(6): 11081116.Google Scholar
Lee, S, Bacha, F, Hannon, T, et al. Effects of aerobic versus resistance exercise without caloric restriction on abdominal fat, intrahepatic lipid, and insulin sensitivity in obese adolescent boys: a randomized, controlled trial. Diabetes 2012; 61(11): 27872795.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Banz, WJ, Maher, MA, Thompson, WG. Effects of resistance versus aerobic training on coronary artery disease risk factors. Exp Biol Med(Maywood) 2003; 228(4): 434440.Google Scholar
Bryner, RW, Ullrich, IH, Sauers, J. Effects of resistance vs. aerobic training combined with an 800 calorie liquid diet on lean body mass and resting metabolic rate. J Am Coll Nutr 1999; 18(2): 115121.Google Scholar
Brinkworth, GD, Noakes, M, Keogh, JB. Long-term effects of a high-protein, low-carbohydrate diet on weight control and cardiovascular risk markers in obese hyperinsulinemic subjects. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord 2004; 28(5): 661670.Google Scholar
Skov, AR, Toubro, S, Ronn, B, et al. Randomized trial on protein vs carbohydrate in ad libitum fat reduced diet for the treatment of obesity. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord 1999; 23(5): 528536.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Foster, GD, Wyatt, HR, Hill, JO, et al. A randomized trial of a low-carbohydrate diet for obesity. N Engl J Med 2003; 348(21): 20822090.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Astrup, A. The satiating power of protein: a key to obesity prevention. Am J Clin Nutr 2005; 82(1): 12.Google Scholar
Hasani-Ranjbar, S, Nayebi, N, Larijani, B, et al. A systemic review of the efficacy and safety of herbal medicines used in the treatment of obesity. World J Gasotroenterol 2009; 15(25): 30733085.Google Scholar
Khan, SS. Physiology, Parathyroid Hormone (PTH). Treasure Island, FL, StatPearls Publishing; 2019.Google Scholar
Stryer, L. Biochemistry. New York, W.H. Freeman and Company; 1995.Google Scholar
Bilezikian, JP, Khan, A, Potts, JT, et al. Hypoparathyroidism in the adult: epidemiology, diagnosis, pathophysiology, target-organ involvement, treatment, and challenges for future research. J Bone Miner Res 2011; 26(10): 23172337.Google Scholar
Potts, JT Jr. Diseases of the Parathyroid Gland: Harrison’s Principles of Internal Medicine. New York, McGraw-Hill; 2005.Google Scholar
Winer, KK, Zhang, B, Shrader, J, et al. Synthetic human parathyroid hormone 1-34 replacement therapy: a randomized crossover trial comparing pump versus injections in the treatment of chronic hypoparathyroidism. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2012; 97(2): 391399.Google Scholar
Cusano, NE, Rubin, MR, McMahon, DJ, et al. The effects of PTH(1-84) on quality of life in hypoparathyroidism. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2013; 98(6): 23562361.Google Scholar
Fraser, WD. Hyperparathyroidism. Lancet 2009; 374(9684):145158.Google Scholar
Cunningham, J, Locatelli, F, Rodriguez, M. Secondary hyperparathyroidism: pathogensis, disease, progression, and therapeutic options. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol 2011; 6(4): 913921.Google Scholar
Chan, AK, Duh, QY, Katz, MH, et al. Clinical manifestations of primary hyperparathyroidism before and after parathyroidectomy. A case-control study. Ann Surg 1995; 222(3): 402414.Google Scholar
Bilezikian, JP, Silverberg, SJ. Clinical practice: asymptomatic primary hyperparathyroidism. N Engl J Med 2004; 350(17): 17461751.Google Scholar
Ballinger, AE, Palmer, SC, Nistor, I, et al. Calcimimetics for secondary hyperparathyroidism in chronic kidney disease patients. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2014; 12: CD006254.Google Scholar
Edwards, ME, Rotramel, A, Beyer, T, et al. Improvement in the health-related quality-of-life symptoms of hyperparathyroidism is durable on long-term follow-up. Surgery 2006; 140(4): 655663.Google Scholar
Weber, T, Keller, M, Hense, I, et al. Effect of parathyroidectomy on quality of life and neuropsychological symptoms in primary hyperparathyroidism. World J Surg 2007; 31(6): 12021209.Google Scholar
Cunningham, J, Danese, M, Olson, K, et al. Effects of the calcimimetic cinacalcet HCL on cardiovascular disease, fracture, and health-related quality of life in secondary hyperparathyroidism. Kidney Int 2005; 68(4): 17931800.Google Scholar
Wuttke, W, Christoffel, JV, Seidolva-Wuttke, SD. Chaste tree (Vitex agnus-castus): pharmacology and clinical indications. Phytomedicine 2003; 10(4): 348357.Google Scholar
Vaidya, GC, Curhan, JM, Paik, M, et al.Physical activity and the risk of primary hyperparathyroidism. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2016; 101(4): 15901597.Google Scholar
Tyagi, V, Scordo, M, Yoon, RS, et al. Revisiting the role of testosterone: are we missing something? Rev Urol 2017; 19(1): 1624.Google Scholar
Roux, S, Orcel, P. Bone loss: factors that regulate osteoclast differentiation – an update. Arthritis Res 2000; 2(6): 451456.Google Scholar
Davis, S, Walker, K. Effects of estradiol with and without testosterone on body composition and relationship with lipids in postmenopausal women. Menopause 2000; 7: 395401.Google Scholar
Miller, K, Biller, B, Beauregard, C. Effects of testosterone replacement in androgen-deficient women with hypopituitarism: a randomized, double-blind placebo-controlled study. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2006; 91: 16831690.Google Scholar
Shifren, J, Braunstein, G, Simon, J. Transdermal testosterone treatment in women with impaired sexual function after oophorectomy. NEJM 2000; 343: 682688.Google Scholar
Gordon, T, Kannel, WB, Hjortland, MC, et al. Menopause and coronary heart disease: the Framingham Study. Ann Intern Med 1978; 89(2): 157161.Google Scholar
Winters, J. Current status of testosterone replacement therapy in men. Arch Fam Med 1999; 8: 257263.Google Scholar
English, KM, Steeds, RP, Jones, HT, et al. Low-dose transdermal therapy improves angina threshold in men with chronic stable angina: a randomized, double-blind placebo-controlled study. Circulation 2000; 102: 19061911.Google Scholar
Saad, F, Gooren, L, Haider, A, et al. Effects of testosterone gel followed by parenteral testosterone undecanoate on sexual dysfunction and on features of the metabolic syndrome. Andrologia 2008; 40: 4448.Google Scholar
Shabsigh, R, Kaufman, J, Steidle, C, et al. Randomized study of testosterone gel as adjunctive therapy to sildenafil in hypogonadal men with erectile dysfunction who do not respond to sildenafil alone. J Urol 2008; 179(5): S97S102.Google Scholar
Eisenberg, ML. Testosterone replacement therapy and prostate cancer incidence. World J Mens Health 2015; 33(3): 125129.Google Scholar
Endogenous Hormones and Prostate Cancer Collaborative Group, Roddam, AW, Allen, NE, et al. Endogenous sex hormones and prostate cancer: a collaborative analysis of 18 prospective studies. J Natl Cancer Inst 2008; 100: 170183.Google Scholar
Vaamonde, D, Da Silva-Grigoletto, ME, García-Manso, JM, et al. Physically active men show better semen parameters and hormone values than sedentary men. Eur J Appl Physiol 2012; 112(9): 32673273.Google Scholar
Kumagai, H, Zempo-Miyaki, A, Yoshikawa, T, et al. Increased physical activity has a greater effect than reduced energy intake on lifestyle modification-induced increases in testosterone. J Clin Biochem Nutr 2016; 58(1): 8489.Google Scholar
Pilz, S, Frisch, S, Koertke, H et al. Effects of vitamin D supplementation on testosterone levels in men. Horm Metab Res 2011; 43(3): 223225.Google Scholar
Bishop, DT, Melkle, AW, Slattery, ML, et al. The effects of nutritional factors on sex hormone levels in male twins. Genet Epidemiol 1995; 5(1): 4359.Google Scholar
Belanger, A, Locong, A, Noel, C, et al. Influence of diet on plasma steroids and sex hormone-binding globulin levels in adult men. J Steroid Biochem 1969; 32(6): 829833.Google Scholar
Delarue, J, Matzinger, O, Binnert, C. Fish oil prevents the adrenal activation elicited by mental stress in healthy men. Diabetes Metab 2003; 29(3): 289295.Google Scholar
Mullur, R, Liu, YY, Brent, GA. Thyroid hormone regulation of metabolism. Physiol Rev 2014; 94(2): 355382.Google Scholar
Chakera, AJ, Pearce, SH, Vaidya, B. Treatment for primary hypothyroidism: current approaches and future possibilities. Drug Des Devel Ther 2012; 6: 111.Google Scholar
Canaris, GJ, Manowitz, NR, Mayor, G, et al. The Colorado thyroid disease prevalence study. Arch Intern Med 2000; 160: 526534.Google Scholar
McDermott, MT, Ridgway, C. Subclinical hypothyroidism is mild thyroid failure and should be treated. J Clin Endocrinol Met 2001; 86(10): 45854590.Google Scholar
Hak, EA, Pols, HA, Visser, TJ, et al. Subclinical hypothyroidism is an independent risk factor for atherosclerosis and myocardial infarction in elderly women: the Rotterdam study. Ann Intern Med 2000; 4: 270278.Google Scholar
Walsh, JP, Bremner, AP, Bulsara, MK, et al. Subclinical thyroid dysfunction as a risk factor for cardiovascular disease. Arch Intern Med 2005; 165(21): 24672472.Google Scholar
Villar, HC, Saconato, H, Valente, O, et al. Thyroid hormone replacement for subclinical hypothyroidism. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2007; 3: CD003419.Google Scholar
Ventura, M, Melo, M, Carrilho, F. Selenium and thyroid disease: from pathophysiology to treatment. Int J Endocrinol 2017; 2017: 1297658.Google Scholar
Maxwell, C, Volpe, SL. Effects of zinc supplementation on thyroid hormone function. Ann Nutr Metab 2007; 51: 188194.Google Scholar
Balhara, YP, Deb, KS. Impact of alcohol use on thyroid function. Indian J Endocrinol Metab 2013; 17(4): 580587.Google Scholar
Bansal, A, Kaushik, A, Singh, CM, et al. The effect of regular physical exercise on the thyroid function of treated hypothyroid patients: an interventional study at a tertiary care center in Bastar region of India. Arch Med Health Sci 2015; 3(2): 244.Google Scholar
Brent, GA. Clinical practice: Graves’ disease. New Eng J Med 2008; 358 (24): 25942605.Google Scholar
Suwalska, A, Lacka, K, Lojko, D, et al. Quality of life, depressive symptoms and anxiety in hyperthyroid patients. Rocz Akad Med Bialymst 2005; 50(1): 6163.Google Scholar
Estcourt, S, Quinn, AG, Vaidya, B. Quality of life in thyroid eye disease: impact of quality of care. Eur J Endocrinol 2011; 164: 649655.Google Scholar
Geffner, DL, Hershman, JM. Beta-adrenergic blockade for the treatment of hyperthyroidism. Am J Med 1992; 93(1): 6168.Google Scholar
De Leo, S, Lee, SY, Braverman, LE. Hyperthyroidism. Lancet 2016; 388(10047): 906918.Google Scholar
Ward, MH, Kilfoy, BA, Weyer, PJ et al. Nitrate intake and the risk of thyroid cancer and thyroid disease. Epidemiology 2010; 21(3): 389395.Google Scholar
Gupta, N, Khera, S, Vempati, RP et al. Effect of yoga based lifestyle intervention on state and trait anxiety. Indian J Physiol Pharmacol 2006; 50(1): 4147.Google Scholar
Zumrutdal, E, Karateke, F, Daglioglu, K, et al. Lawsonia inermis: an alternative treatment for hyperthyroidism? Bratisl Lek Listy 2014; 115(2): 6669.Google Scholar

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure coreplatform@cambridge.org is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Available formats
×