Elsevier

Science of The Total Environment

Volume 511, 1 April 2015, Pages 123-137
Science of The Total Environment

Current status of persistent organic pesticides residues in air, water, and soil, and their possible effect on neighboring countries: A comprehensive review of India

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2014.12.041Get rights and content

Highlights

  • Every environmental component in India is contaminated with POPs.

  • Residue level of pesticide is high in air, water and soil despite low consumption.

  • Tibetan Plateau in Southwest China is affected with POP emission from India.

  • India is one of the major contributors of global POP distribution.

Abstract

Though the use of pesticides has offered significant economic benefits by enhancing the production and yield of food and fibers and the prevention of vector-borne diseases, evidence suggests that their use has adversely affected the health of human populations and the environment. Pesticides have been widely distributed and their traces can be detected in all areas of the environment (air, water and soil). Despite the ban of DDT and HCH in India, they are still in use, both in domestic and agricultural settings. In this comprehensive review, we discuss the production and consumption of persistent organic pesticides, their maximum residual limit (MRL) and the presence of persistent organic pesticides in multicomponent environmental samples (air, water and soil) from India. In order to highlight the global distribution of persistent organic pesticides and their impact on neighboring countries and regions, the role of persistent organic pesticides in Indian region is reviewed. Based on a review of research papers and modeling simulations, it can be concluded that India is one of the major contributors of global persistent organic pesticide distribution. This review also considers the health impacts of persistent organic pesticides, the regulatory measures for persistent organic pesticides, and the status of India's commitment towards the elimination of persistent organic pesticides.

Introduction

The use of chemical pesticides has provided a valuable aid to agricultural production, increasing crop protection and yield. However, the discovery of pesticidal residues in various sections of the environment has raised serious concerns regarding their use; concerns which well-outweigh the overall benefits derived from them (Ali et al., 2014, Sharma et al., 2014). Organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) have been in wide usage across the world to control agricultural pests and vector-borne diseases (Abhilash and Singh, 2009, Zhang et al., 2011). Amongst the OCPs in regular usage, dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT), hexachlorocyclohexane (HCH), endosulfan, aldrin, chlordane, dieldrin, endrin, heptachlor, mirex, hexachlorobenzene (HCB) and toxaphene, metoxychlor, and metolachlor are persistent organic pesticides. OCPs are very stable compounds and their half-lives can range from a few months to several years; in some cases decades (Cremlyn, 1991). It has been estimated that the degradation of DDT in soil ranges from 4 to 30 years, while other chlorinated OCPs may remain stable for many years after their use (Afful et al., 2010). Because of their inability to break down in the environment, their degradation is restricted by chemical, physical, biological and microbiological means (Afful et al., 2010, Darko and Acquaah, 2007, NCEH, 2005, Swackhamer and Hites, 1988). They are liposoluble compounds and are capable of bio-accumulating in the fatty parts of biota such as breast milk, blood and fatty tissues (William et al., 2008) in the food chain. As a result, human beings are exposed to the effects of these micropollutants by eating foods in contact with contaminated soil or water (Belta et al., 2006, Raposo and Re-Poppi, 2007). These pesticides not only cause serious diseases in humans but are also highly toxic to most aquatic life (Aiyesanmi and Idowu, 2012) and soil microflora (Megharaj, 2002).

According to a joint report produced by WHO and UNEP, roughly 200,000 people die and around three million are poisoned each year by pesticides, all over the world, though the vast majority (95%) of cases are from developing nations (WHO/UNEP, 1990, FAO/WHO, 2000, Pope et al., 1994). As a result of the severe health effects associated with pesticides, most notably DDT and HCH, their use has been either banned or restricted in many countries (Jit et al., 2011, van den Berg, 2009). In India, pesticide use was banned in 1985, with the exemption of DDT which is still being used to control malaria (UNEP, 2003). Though the use of HCHs was banned for agricultural use in 1997, the Indian government still allows the use of HCHs on specific crops as well as in the health sector (Mukherjee and Gopal, 2003, Tanabe et al., 1994). There are few countries besides India who are still engaged in the production, usage and export of γ-HCH on a large scale (Abhilash and Singh, 2009).

India is home to approximately 16% of the total world's population, but has just less than 2% of the total landmass. Rapid population growth, together with a high emphasis on achieving food grain self-sufficiency has compelled Indian farmers to resort to the substantial use of pesticides. It is estimated that more than 100,000 tons of DDTs has been applied in India alone, primarily for agricultural use and malaria eradication programs, due to their low cost and broad-spectrum toxicity, making them effective in the control of pests and diseases (Kannan et al., 1995, Voldner and Li, 1995, Abhilash and Singh, 2009, Arora et al., 2013). However, some characteristics, such as persistency, volatility and atmospheric distribution through long range transportation (Bentzen et al., 2008, Caldas et al., 1999) has resulted in the contamination of air, water, soil and food (Caldas et al., 1999, Hans et al., 1999, Kim and Smith, 2001, Kumar et al., 1995, Singh, 2002, Singh et al., 2005a, Singh et al., 2005b).

Persistent organic pesticide residues have been broadly distributed in Indian soil (Al-Wabel et al., 2011, Devi et al., 2013, Hoai et al., 2010, Kata et al., in press, Kumar et al., 2014, Kumari et al., 2008, Liu et al., 2009, Senthilkumar et al., 2009), water (Huang et al., 2013, Lari et al., 2014, Malik et al., 2009, Mutiyar et al., 2011, Mutiyar and Mittal, 2012, Singh et al., 2012), air (Chakraborty et al., 2010, Devi et al., 2011, Huang et al., 2013, Srimural et al., in press, Syed et al., 2013, Zhang et al., 2008), living creatures (Bhuvaneshwari and Rajendran, 2012, Devanathan et al., 2009, Subramaniam and Solomon, 2006), and crops (Bajpai et al., 2007, Chowdhury et al., 2011). The fate of OCPs in soils in the areas of land use and cropping patterns has also been extensively studied. The concentrations of these pollutants observed in many agricultural soil samples were very high (Al-Wabel et al., 2011, Hoai et al., 2010, Kumari et al., 2008, Liu et al., 2009, Senthilkumar et al., 2009, Xu et al., 2013a, Xu et al., 2013b). A number of studies revealed the prevalence of OCPs and PCBs in various environmental matrices, including food commodities in India (Aktar et al., 2009, Chakraborty et al., 2010, Chowdhury et al., 2007, Devanathan et al., 2009, Guzzella et al., 2005, IPEN, 2006, Kole et al., 2001, Kumar et al., 2009, Prakash et al., 2004, Senthilkumar et al., 2001, Someya et al., 2009, Zhang et al., 2008). Today, everything from food to groundwater and drinking water is contaminated severely with OCPs, therefore understanding the environmental fate of OCP residues is a key issue. Although OCPs have a long history (over 30 years) of usage in India, very limited information is available on the presence of OCP residues in the air, soil and water systems. Also, study of the health risks associated with OCPs in the Indian environment is lacking (Ali et al., 2014, Sharma et al., 2014). Despite a low consumption pattern of OCPs in India compared to other developed nations, its indiscriminate use has resulted in the sporadic occurrence of the residues in abiotic and biotic compartments (Sarkar et al., 2008). It is worth examining the distribution, behavior and fate of these compounds in various areas of the environment in order to understand the potential sources of persistent organic pesticides. Discovery of these compounds in multiple sections of the environment (water, air and soil) may indicate the extent of contamination and the accumulation in the region.

Here, we review the present levels of persistent organic pesticides in different environmental areas (air, water and soil) in India to assess their possible impact on human health and the neighboring countries/regions; potential hazards and risks associated with saturation; best management practice; and the regulatory system to control persistent organic pesticides.

Approximately 2 million tons of pesticides is consumed worldwide each year, of which 24% is consumed in the USA, 45% in Europe and the remaining 25% in the rest of the world (Abhilash and Singh, 2009). This indicates that the most developed countries (mostly North America, Western Europe, and Japan, where pesticide application rates are high) consume three quarters of the total pesticide used worldwide (USEPA, 2009). The use of herbicides, which have a lower acute, or immediate, toxicity than insecticides, in these regions is more commonplace (WRI, 1998). In most developing nations, India included, the situation is reversed and insecticide use predominates, posing higher levels of acute risk (Rathore and Nollet, 2012). Though the quantity of pesticides consumed in developing nations is much less compared to developed countries, it is growing gradually and substantially (Wilson and Tisdell, 2001, WRI, 1998). Consumption of pesticides is intense, especially in export crops such as cotton, bananas, coffee, vegetables, and flowers (WRI, 1998).

In India, the use of pesticides began in 1948 with the import of DDT for malaria control and benzene hexachloride (BHC) for locust control (Gupta, 2004). Later, in 1949, the use of both pesticides (DDT and BHC) was broadened to the agriculture sector. At present, India accounts for approximately 3% of total pesticide consumption in the world (Fig. S.1), however this is increasing at the rate of 2–5% per annum (Bhadbhade et al., 2002). Of the total Indian pesticide consumption, 67% is used in agriculture and horticulture (Puri, 1998), while public health accounts for roughly 8.5% (World Bank, 1997). Pesticide consumption has increased several hundred folds, from 154 MT in 1954 to 41,822 MT in 2009–2010. It is estimated that the domestic consumption of pesticides in India is low (0.5 kg ha 1) compared to several other countries (17.0 kg ha 1, 14.0 kg ha 1, 12.0 kg ha 1, 9.4 kg ha 1, 7.0 kg ha 1 and 5.0 kg ha 1 in Taiwan, China, Japan, Netherland, USA, and United Kingdom respectively) (Fig. 1) (Chauhan and Singhal, 2006). The consumption pattern of pesticides in India is different from that of the rest of the world. It is important to note in Fig. 2 that insecticides account for the largest consumption rate (76%) in India, followed by herbicides (10%) and fungicides (13%). This is a stark contrast to the rest of the world where herbicide (30%) and fungicide (21%) use is higher (Mathur, 1999). Those pesticides in India with the highest consumption rates include monocrotophos, endosulfan, phorate, chlorpyriphos, methyl parathion, quinalphos, mancozeb, paraquat, butachlor, isoproturon and phosphamidon (Bhushan et al., 2013). HCHs and DDTs together account for two-thirds of the total pesticides consumed in India (Kumari et al., 2001) for agricultural and public health purposes. In terms of volume, OCPs constitute 40% of pesticide use, followed by organophosphates (30%), carbamates (15%), synthetic pyrethroids (10%) and others (5%) (Fig. 3). In terms of value, organophosphates dominate (50%), followed by synthetic pyrethroids (19%), OCPs (16%), carbamates (4%), bio-pesticides (1%) and so on.

Consumption patterns are highly inconsistent and vary from one state to another (SEEP, 2010). Andhra Pradesh (South India) has the highest rate of pesticide consumption of any state (9289 MT), followed by Uttar Pradesh (North India) (8839 MT), and Maharashtra (West India) (6723 MT) (Fig. 4). The state of Tamil Nadu (South India), with an area of 130,000 km2 uses 12,500 metric tons of pesticides annually. Maharashtra has an area of 307,000 km2 and consumes only 6000 metric tons of pesticides (SEEP, 2010). However, the state of Punjab (West India), using 5770 metric tons of pesticides per annum, has an area of just 50,000 km2. The average usage of pesticide is high in insecticide resistant management (IRM) and non-IRM areas (5.6 and 8 kg ha 1, respectively) of Punjab state compared to the average national use (0.5–1 kg ha 1) (Gupta, 2004, Peshin, 2005). These differences in consumption patterns could be explained by the use of land for cultivation, as well as crops raised. Cotton cultivation covers only 5% of area but consumes more than 50% of the total pesticides used (Rajendran et al., 2000). By contrast cereals and pulses cultivated in 58% of agriculture land, consume only 6 to 7% of the total pesticides used. Thus, cotton-growing states use disproportionately higher volumes of pesticides despite their smaller area. Currently, roughly 230 known pesticides are registered for use in India, of which 40% are organochlorines (FAO, 2005). Only 84 of the 230 pesticides registered, are actually used in the agriculture sector, and only 25–30% of the total cultivated area of the nation (143 million ha) is under pesticide cover. Today, rice has the highest rate of pesticide consumption (29%), followed by cotton (27%), vegetables (9%) and pulses (9%) (Fig. 5). It is evident in Fig. 5 that consumption of pesticides in cotton has been decreasing since 2001–02. This is because of the promotion and increased awareness of bio-pesticides amongst Indian farmers, replacing the use of existing pesticides.

Several global reports have ranked India amongst the leading pesticide consuming countries (Gupta, 2004, Mehrotra, 1993). The report, ‘Pesticide Residues in Indian Food and Agricultural Products’ (REF), disclosed that Indian food and agricultural products contained substantial quantities of pesticide residues. This is because Indian farmers use pesticides indiscriminately, due to lack of adequate education. Another reason for high pesticide residues is the use of sub-standard pesticides and incorrect advice issued to farmers by pesticide dealers. In most developed countries, such as the USA, many European nations, Taiwan, Japan and Korea, farmers are better informed and the spraying of pesticides is done in a meticulous manner to the target crop, thereby minimizing loss. However, in India this is not the case. To increase yield, Indian farmers use pesticides indiscriminately (Sarkar et al., 2008). To combat these issues, the Indian government should consider providing a training program for farmers, clarifying the correct dosages and methodologies of pesticide application (Kumari and Reddy, 2013).

Before 1970, the nine chemicals targeted by the Stockholm Convention were formulated and consumed internationally, and were used in agricultural crops or in the public health sector (Pandey et al., 2011). These pesticides were subsequently either banned or restricted in many countries in 1970s. Although banned in developed nations, these chemicals were permitted for use in many developing countries because of their low cost and versatility in industry (Tanabe et al., 1994). India started pesticide production in 1952 with the establishment of the BHC technical plant for the production of BHC at Rishra, near Kolkata (East India). Later, two more DDT manufacturing units were setup by Hindustan Insecticides Limited. Thereafter, several pesticide manufacturing companies, such as Union Carbide India Ltd. (1969), were set up to manufacture pesticides. Today, the Indian pesticide industry produces more than 500 pesticides through roughly 125 large and medium scale pesticide enterprises. A sharp increase in the number of Indian pesticide manufacturers led to over production of many technical grade pesticides, causing a decrease of 50% in the price of several key insecticides. This made pesticide use an economically viable option for Indian farmers to increase their crop production.

India is currently the second largest producer of pesticides in Asia, after China. It ranks as the fourth largest pesticide-producing nation in the world after the USA, Japan and China (Agnihotri, 2000, Kumar et al., 2012). India has more than 139,000 MT pesticide production capacity annually, with more than 219 technical grade and manufacturing units, and over 4000 formulation units. A steady growth in the production of technical grade pesticides was observed during the period 1958 (total production 5000 MT) to 1997 (total production 102,600 MT) (Table 1). However, pesticide production lowered to 80,900 MT in 1998 due to a drop in the sale of pesticides by 13%, as a result of crop failures due to adverse weather. This decline during 1998 can also be attributed to the poor financial status of those cotton farmers who suffered heavy crop losses that year. Likewise, the reduced data requirements for registration of pesticides for exportation, by the Registration Committee of Pesticides, Government of India, encouraged pesticide production in the country. After 1998, the production trend of pesticides in India is almost stable, with total production limited to around 82,000–85,000 MT in 2009–2010. This is because the costs of discovering, developing and registering new molecules have increased substantially over the years.

The Indian pesticide industry produces two categories of pesticides: technical grade and formulated. Technical grade pesticides are extremely toxic and contain hazardous material; formulations are produced by the processing of technical grade pesticides with some emulsifiers. More than 60 technical grade pesticides are manufactured in India, mainly by multinational corporations, while the formulation market is highly fragmented and includes small formulators. At present, 30 technical grade pesticides have been banned (Table S.1), while seven, including DDT, are restricted (Table S.2) (Pandey et al., 2011). Aldrin, chlordane and heptachlor were banned in September, 1996, while DDT has been restricted since July 1989. Dieldrin was banned in July, 2003, Endrin in May 1990, and HCH in April 1997. Endosulfan and methoxychlor are allowed for use in India, however, HCB has never been registered as a pesticide (Pandey et al., 2011, UNEP, 2003).

Residues of some persistent pesticides may remain longer in target crops and find their way into humans through the food chain (Bhushan et al., 2013). The residues of these pesticides should not exceed extreme limits as this may cause a threat to human health. Hence, maximum residue limits (MRLs), acceptable daily intake (ADI) and theoretical maximum daily intake (TMDI) have been proposed and developed to monitor residues of these pesticides in the food chain (Bhushan et al., 2013). The MRL is the maximum residue limit of pesticides, which may be considered normal, found in a product treated with them if good agricultural practices have been followed. An ADI is the maximum acceptable intake of pesticides from all dietary sources in a day, without their posing any chronic health risk. The TMDI is an estimate of the maximum intake of pesticides with the existing MRLs for a person, resulting from a particular dietary practice.

There are no globally accepted standards for pesticide residues available, however, FAO and WHO have recommended that the standard acceptable rate for POPs in any sample should be zero tolerance (FAO/WHO, 2011). The most widely accepted and adopted safety limits for pesticides are those set by the FAO and WHO, resulting from a Joint Meeting on Pesticide Residues (JMPR) and the Codex Alimentarius Commission. JMPR recommendations are based on a peer review of international data, together with an examination of pesticide occurrence, treatability, detectability and effect (FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations) and WHO (World Health Organization), 2011, Fishel, 2010). It is also opined that pesticide limits should not be lower than the analytical limits of quantification (LOQ) achievable in qualified laboratories under routine operating conditions. To minimize the risk of pesticides at reasonable cost, the majority of nations have enforced regulatory limits, either in the form of standards (which are enforceable) or guidelines (which are desirable levels).

Central Insecticides Boards and Registration Committee of India (CIBRC) is the regulatory body of the Indian government responsible for the registration of pesticides, while the Food Safety and Standard Authority of India (FSSAI) sets the MRLs of registered pesticides. Indian standards allow considerably increased levels of persistent organic pesticides compared to European Union (EU) standards. For example, the regulatory limit for lindane is 100 times higher than those of the EU (IPEN, 2006); acceptable levels of aldrin and dieldrin allowed are 10 times higher in Indian food than in the Czech Republic (IPEN, 2006); and acceptable limits permitted for DDT and its metabolites, heptachlor and endosulfans, are seven times, five times, and 40 times higher respectively in Indian food than in the Czech Republic. In Indian drinking water, the residual limit for lindane is roughly 20 times higher than in the Czech Republic; heptachlor is more than 30 times than in the EU; and 200 times more aldrin and endosulfan is permitted than in the Czech Republic (IPEN, 2006). These figures indicate the alarming variation of MRLs for pesticides in India. It appears that the levels are being wrongly formulated, while their implementation status is much worse.

Section snippets

Persistent organic pesticide levels in air

Pesticides from non-target agricultural crops or volatilization from the treated area may contaminate air, soil, and water. Various instances of pesticide drift occur during every application, even from ground equipment (Glotfelty and Schomburg, 1989). Pesticide drift accounts for approximately 2 to 25% chemical loss during application; this can spread over a wide area, from a few yards to several hundred miles. There are many cases of pesticides drifting, in the US alone, every year (Que et

The role of India in the global distribution of persistent organic pesticides

Due to the severe human health risk associated with persistent organic pesticides, both researchers and politicians have shown a deep interest in understanding the fate and behavior of persistent organic pesticides in the environment, as well as the discovery of persistent organic pesticides in pristine environments far from emission source. The long range atmospheric transportation (LRAT) movement of persistent organic pesticides has led to the negotiation of protocols in various countries

Health impact and ecological toxicity

Around the world, pesticides are considered important public health tools, used to prevent vector borne diseases and to increase food production. However, extensive use of such pesticides results in substantial health and environmental threats (Forget, 1993, Jeyaratnam, 1985). Pesticides constitute an important component in agricultural development and the protection of public health in India. The tropical climate of India is conducive to pest breeding thereby making the population increasingly

Preventative measures

The implementation of appropriate preventive measures helps to minimize cases of pesticide poisoning and other health risks linked to pesticide use. The government of India is concerned about the health risks of pesticides and has implemented various measures, such integrated pest management (IPM), prohibition of highly hazardous pesticides, restricting the use of toxic compounds, and the development of a national implementation plan (NIP).

Government of India's efforts to eliminate persistent organic pesticides

The international community has been greatly concerned about the health risks associated with persistent organic pesticides and have sought mutual cooperation and action from all nations to reduce and eliminate the production, use and release of persistent organic pesticides. To date, six international legally binding instruments have been negotiated and concluded. India has signed and ratified three of them (Table 5). The executive body of the UNECE Convention on Long-Range Trans boundary Air

Regulatory system for controlling persistent organic pesticides in India

Though the use of pesticides is necessary to protect agricultural crops from pests and to control vector borne disease, the regulatory system has had to take into consideration its residues in food and water. In India, a number of government agencies are involved in the regulation of pesticides. The Ministry of Agriculture regulates the manufacture, sale, transport and distribution, export, import, and use of pesticides through the ‘Insecticides Act 1968’. CIBRC directs the central and state

Concluding remarks

Many studies have focused on the monitoring and analysis of persistent organic pesticides, especially OCPs and Ops, showing that every environmental area (air, water and soil) in India has been contaminated by persistent organic pesticides; its residues are found above MRL levels in air, water and soil across the nation. The majority of studies reviewed suggest that residue levels of pesticides in the Indian air, water and soil are high, despite the present low consumption in India. This may be

Acknowledgments

The present study is supported by the Chinese Academy of Sciences Fellowships for Young International Scientists to ICY (grant number: 2014FFZB0017).

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