ReviewAdsorption of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs from aqueous solution using activated carbons: Review
Graphical abstract
Introduction
Pharmaceuticals have been classified as one of the most significant groups of environmental pollutants. Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) represent one of the widely used pharmaceuticals. These drugs treat human and animal diseases in terms of analgesic, anti-inflammatory, and antipyretic actions (Rodríguez-Álvarez et al., 2013). Consequently, NSAIDs are among the most detected drugs in the aquatic environment. Due to their unique properties of hydrophilicity and stability, NSAIDs can remain in the aqueous phase. According to the literature, they exist in surface waters at concentrations up to μg/l (Manzo et al., 2014).
Several methods have been applied for treatment of NSAIDs pollutants like photocatalytic degradation (Kaur et al., 2015, Kaur et al., 2016, Zhang et al., 2015a, Zhang et al., 2015b), micro extraction (Manzo et al., 2014, D'Archivio et al., 2016), oxidation (Rodríguez-Álvarez et al., 2013), biodegrada tion (Yu et al., 2011, Koumaki et al., 2017), chlorination (Noutsopoulos et al., 2015), bio filtration (Binellia et al., 2014), electrocoagulation–flotation (Liu et al., 2015), electrochemical oxidation (Feng et al., 2013), and adsorption (Suriyanon et al., 2015, Cuerda-Correa et al., 2010, Jung et al., 2015). Among these techniques, a simple and low-cost adsorption process shows excellent removal efficiency towards pharmaceuticals (Vona et al., 2015).
In general, ACs present more stable adsorption properties as compared to clays, polymers, zeolites, and graphene-based adsorbents (Kyzas et al., 2015). Thus, the treatment of antibiotics by AC adsorption technology has been reviewed by many articles (Ahmed et al., 2015, Yu et al., 2016, Michael et al., 2013, Le-Minh et al., 2010, Homem and Santos, 2011). The majority of studied pharmaceutical pollutants are antibiotics because of their presence with relatively high concentrations in wastewaters (Kyzas et al., 2015). Rare reviews with poor informations are found in literature which include AC adsorption treatment of non-antibiotic pharmaceuticals (Rivera-Utrilla et al., 2013, Wang and Wang, 2016). Thus, the present review focuses on application of AC for adsorptive removal of non-antibiotic pollutants represented by NSAIDs such as ibuprofen, ketoprofen, naproxen, and diclofenac from aqueous solutions. It includes in detail the adsorption behaviors of these drugs in terms of isotherms, kinetics, thermodynamics, and mechanisms along with the effects of adsorption variables on capacity of each drug.
Section snippets
Activated carbon
Activated carbon (AC) is defined as a carbonaceous solid with high micropores volume, well developed surface area and high adsorptive capacity (Hesas et al., 2013, Pezoti et al., 2016). Therefore, AC has been classified as an efficient adsorbent for water treatment and air pollution control (Flores-Cano et al., 2016, Nor et al., 2013). The suitable application of AC depends on its properties which vary with used raw precursor and preparation technique (Ahmed and Theydan, 2012a, Torrellas
Anti-inflammatory drugs
Pharmaceuticals or drugs are medicinal compounds used for treatment of human and animal diseases (Deng et al., 2016, Lin and Li, 2016). The common drugs are antibiotics, analgesics and anti-inflammatories, painkillers, and hormones (Sun et al., 2015, Li, 2014). These chemicals appear in effluents of hospitals, drug factories, and landfills (Lu et al., 2016, Nazari et al., 2016). Although the concentration of drugs in wastewaters is low, their continuous release to aquatic system cause an
Adsorption isotherms
The adsorbate concentration as a function of adsorbed amount at equilibrium is an important relation in determination of attraction nature for a given adsorption system. In addition, the analysis of equilibrium data is useful for design of adsorption unit. The widely used two-parameter isotherms such as Langmuir, 1916, Freundlich, 1906, Temkin (Temkin and Pyzhev, 1940), BET (Brunauer et al., 1938), and Dubinin-Radushkevich (Özcan et al., 2005); and three-parameter isotherms like Sips (1948) are
Adsorption kinetics
The adsorbed amounts versus contact time data are important to evaluate the rate and equilibrium time for an adsorption system. The analysis of kinetic data is useful for design and mechanism understand of adsorption units (Febrianto et al., 2009, Alberti et al., 2012). Many kinetic models have been established to study the adsorption of drugs (Table 2), namely pseudo-first order (Langergen and Svenska, 1898), pseudo-second order (Ho and Mckay, 1999), intra-particle diffusion (Weber and Morris,
Adsorption thermodynamics
Thermodynamic data for adsorption systems are collected by performing set of experiments at various temperatures. The basic thermodynamic equations in terms of changes in Gibbs free energy (ΔG), enthalpy (ΔH), and entropy (ΔS) are summarized in Table 2. The thermodynamic results of NSIDs adsorption onto various ACs are summarized in Table 5.
Dubey et al. (2010) evaluated adsorption thermodynamics of IBP on AC from Magwort leaves by H2SO4 chemical activation. The corresponding ΔG values were
Conclusions and future perspectives
The adsorption performance of ACs prepared by physical and chemical activations towards four important non-steroidal anti-inflammatory pharmaceuticals, namely ibuprofen, ketoprofen, naproxen, and diclofenac was reviewed. High adsorption performances were reported for ACs towards studied drugs. The effects of adsorption parameters on performance of AC towards drugs showed that initial drug concentration and AC dose have the greatest effect compared to solution pH and adsorption temperature.
Acknowledgment
The author wishes to thank university of Baghdad and chemical engineering department for their encouragement to publish this work.
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