ReviewBiosorption and biotransformation of hexavalent chromium [Cr(VI)]: A comprehensive review
Introduction
Rapid industrialization has led to overexploitation of available resources as well as unregulated disposal of industrial wastes in the environment. Any metallic element with relatively high density as compared to water and toxic even at low concentrations is termed as “Heavy Metal” (Lenntech, 2004). Heavy metal pollution has become a global issue, with severity and levels of pollution differing from place to place. Most of the heavy metals like Arsenic (As), Cadmium (Cd), Lead (Pb), Mercury (Hg) and Chromium (Cr) are well known for their toxicity, non-biodegradability, persistence in nature and bioaccumulation tendency (Garg et al., 2007). Out of these, Hexavalent chromium [Cr(VI)] has a wide range of applications in the stainless steel industries, electroplating processes, dyes and leather tanneries, as well as in wood preservation processes. The United States Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA) has identified Cr(VI) as one of the seventeen chemicals posing a threat to humans (McCullough et al., 1999). It enters into various environmental systems (air, water, soil etc.) through some natural processes as well as via anthropogenic activities like mining, smelting operations, metal processing, industrial production, domestic and agricultural use of metals etc. The effluents from most of the industries are discharged directly into the water bodies or in fields without any kind of treatment, which leads to contamination and destruction of the ecosystem. Exposure to Cr(VI) causes severe health hazards on flora and fauna. Therefore, several research groups throughout the world are trying to develop an efficient technology for removal or conversion of Cr(VI) into a less toxic form. In this review, we highlight the chemistry of Cr(VI), its occurrence, toxicity, contamination, and various remediation methods with emphasis on bioremediation measures and use of different biological entities such as bacteria, fungi, algae, plants as well as agricultural wastes for bioremediation of Cr(VI).
Section snippets
Natural occurrence and chemistry of chromium
Cr is a hard, steel-gray metal found naturally in earth's crust in form of chromite ore. It is a transition metal and belongs to group VI in the periodic table as the first element of the group. It exists in various oxidation states ranging from Cr(II) to Cr(VI). Among these states, Cr(III) and Cr(VI) are most common and highly stable. Naturally, Cr is found in all sort of environmental components including air, water, and soil but in trace amounts.
Toxicity of chromium
Cr, being necessary for the normal metabolism of sugar, lipid and proteins in mammals, becomes an essential micronutrient in the diet of animals and humans. There is no known requirement of Cr in metabolic pathways of plants and microorganisms. Though high levels of Cr is always toxic, the toxicity level depends on its oxidation state. Cr(VI) is considered highly toxic as it causes severe ill effects on human and animal health like diarrhea, ulcers, eye and skin irritations, kidney dysfunction
Contamination caused by chromium
Cr has tremendous industrial applications due to its corrosion resistant quality and hardness. It is used at a large scale in various industries including metallurgical, electroplating, tanning, wood preservation, manufacturing of stainless steel, production of paints, pigments, pulp, and paper (Kamaludeen et al., 2003, Baral et al., 2006, Lu et al., 2013). Waste from these industries (e.g. sludge, fly ash, slag, etc.) is a major source of Cr(VI) in the environment. There has been an increase
Remediation of chromium (VI)
Today, man's greatest challenge is to cope up with metal pollution problem. Unlike organic compounds which are degraded naturally, heavy metals cannot be degraded, hence, it gets accumulated at different sites. Remediation of Cr is possible through various physical, chemical and biological method. Cr(VI) compounds being strong oxidants are readily reduced to Cr(III) in presence of organic or inorganic electron donors. A comprehensive list of available physical, chemical and biological methods
Conclusion and research lacunas
Biosorption and biotransformation have been proven as efficient, eco-friendly and cost-effective strategies for remediation of Cr(VI) contaminated environment. Biomass of bacteria, fungi, algae, plants have been implemented and found to be effective for Cr(VI) transformation. The molecular mechanism suggested in this review provides an insight into a better understanding of Cr(VI) removal. This can help in developing the existing technologies of chromium remediation to be more efficient.
Still,
Acknowledgment
The authors are grateful for the editing services rendered by TEXTiFRAME.
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