Evaluation of In vitro Cr(VI) reduction potential in cytosolic extracts of three indigenous Bacillus sp. isolated from Cr(VI) polluted industrial landfill
Introduction
Hexavalent chromium Cr(VI), an extensively used anthropogenic pollutant is released into the environment due to its applications in metallurgical and refractory industries including corrosion inhibition, electroplating, paints, pigment manufacturing, leather tanning and wood preservatives (Viti et al., 2003, Sultan and Hasnain, 2007). Chromium can exist in oxidation states ranging from 2− to 6+ (Avudainayagam et al., 2003). Hexavalent chromium Cr(VI) and trivalent chromium Cr(III) are the most dominant oxidation states of chromium that exist in the environment (Megharaj et al., 2003). Cr(VI) is highly mobile and water soluble as compared to Cr(III), whereas Cr(III) is relatively inert, chemically more stable than Cr(VI) and less bioavailable due to its negligible permeability to biomembranes (Myers et al., 2000, Megharaj et al., 2003, Pal et al., 2005).
In aqueous systems Cr(VI) exists as oxyanions () which are structurally analogous to sulfate and phosphate ions, hence can be easily taken up by anionic transport systems of both bacterial and eukaryotic cells (Mattagajasingh et al., 1996, Cervantes et al., 2001, Asatiani et al., 2004, Cheung and Gu, 2007). The intracellular Cr(VI) is reduced to Cr(V), Cr(IV) and Cr(III) valence states by intracellular components with generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) which in turn results in chromate induced toxicity by formation of ternary adducts of intracellular Cr(III) with DNA and proteins, whereas the oxidative DNA damage is caused by Cr(V) and ROS (Mattagajasingh et al., 1996, Bose et al., 1999, Quievryn et al., 2003, Ackerley et al., 2006). Due to its strong oxidizing properties intracelluar Cr(VI) exerts mutagenic and teratogenic effects. In view of the seriousness of Cr(VI) pollution and its alarming effects on human health, it has been listed as a priority pollutant and classified as class A human carcinogen by the US Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) (Cieslak-Golonka, 1995, Costa and Klein, 2006).
Metal pollutants are non-degradable and can only be transformed to less toxic oxidation states or removed either by adsorption/accumulation or by physicochemical treatments. Amongst the various approaches currently employed for environmental clean-up of Cr(VI), biological Cr(VI) detoxification is an ecofriendly and a cost-effective alternative to the conventional physicochemical methods (Camargo et al., 2003a, Megharaj et al., 2003). Several microorganisms have the exceptional ability to adapt and colonize the noxious metal polluted environments by developing mechanisms to evade metal toxicity like metal efflux channels, metal resistance plasmids, adsorption uptake, DNA methylation and metal biotransformation either directly by specific enzymes or indirectly by cellular metabolites.
Biotransformation of Cr(VI) to Cr(III) using bacteria is the most pragmatic approach with a well-established feasibility in bioremediation. Reduction of Cr(VI) has been demonstrated in various bacterial species including Bacillus sp. (Campos et al., 1995, Camargo et al., 2004, Elangovan et al., 2006, Liu et al., 2006), Pseudomonas sp. (Bopp and Ehrlich, 1988, Ishibashi et al., 1990, Suzuki et al., 1992, Salunkhe et al., 1998, Park et al., 2000, Mclean and Beveridge, 2001, Ganguli and Tripathi, 2002), Escherichia coli (Bae et al., 2005), Desulfovibrio sp. (Mabbett and Macaskie, 2001), Microbacterium sp. (Pattanapipitpaisal et al., 2001), Shewanella sp. (Myers et al., 2000, Vaimajala et al., 2002) and Arthrobacter sp. (Megharaj et al., 2003, Asatiani et al., 2004). It is imperative to gauge the enzymatic mechanisms involved in hexavalent chromium reduction in order to develop a rational Cr(VI) bioreduction process and such mechanisms have been reported in Bacillus sp. AND 303 (Pal et al., 2005), Bacillus sp. ES 29 (Camargo et al., 2004), Bacillus sp. QC-2 (Campos et al., 1995), Bacillus sp. (Elangovan et al., 2006), Pseudomonas ambigua G-1 (Suzuki et al., 1992), Pseudomonas putida (Ishibashi et al., 1990, Park et al., 2000), Escherichia coli ATCC 33456 (Bae et al., 2005). Bacterial enzymes with their biological function as hydrogenases (Chardin et al., 2003), nitroreductases (Kwak et al., 2003) and quinone reductases (Gonzalez et al., 2005) have been reported to exhibit chromate reductase activity.
The present study evaluates the chromate reductase activity associated with the cell-free extracts of three indigenous Bacillus sp. isolated from a highly polluted industrial landfill site. The optimal conditions for Cr(VI) reduction as well as, the stability of the Cr(VI) reduction under different in vitro conditions for each of the Bacillus sp. have been elucidated in this study.
Section snippets
Isolation and cultivation of bacteria
Cr(VI) resistant and reducing bacterial strains were isolated from long term chromium polluted site of Gorwa Industrial Estate, Vadodara, Gujarat, India. Sediment sample of this landfill was contaminated with chromium level of 10,703 mg/kg of soil as estimated by inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectroscopy (ICP-AES) using Perkin–Elmer ICP Optima-3300RL (Perkin Elmer, Norwalk, Conn). The bacterial strains were screened from the serial dilutions of the sediment suspensions plated onto
Screening and identification of bacterial isolates
Heavy metal contamination is known to cause shifts in microbial communities with emergence of bacterial species with elevated metal tolerance (Smit et al., 1997, Stepanauskas et al., 2005). Chromium contamination exerts a selective pressure on microbial flora of tannery soils (Viti et al., 2003). Industrial landfill site receiving long-term augmentations of hexavalent chromium Cr(VI) was chosen in this study with an aim to screen for Cr(VI) resistant and Cr(VI) reducing bacteria.
Conclusion
The present study demonstrates the expediency of Cr(VI) reduction and evaluates the Cr(VI) reductase activity under different in vitro conditions in the cell-free extracts of three indigenous Bacillus sp. isolates of a Cr(VI) polluted landfill. Resting cells of all the three Bacillus sp. effectively reduced 100 μM Cr(VI) and cell-permeabilization further increased the Cr(VI) reduction potential. The suspended cells of Bacillus sp. G1DM22 exhibited an ability for continuous reduction of 100 μM
Acknowledgements
This work was financially supported by Department of Biotechnology, Ministry of Science and Technology, New Delhi, India and Puri Foundation, Nottingham, UK. Authors are also grateful to the Sophisticated Instrumentation Center for Applied Research and Testing (SICART), Vallabh Vidyanagar, Gujarat, India for providing facilities for ICP-AES and electron microscopy analysis.
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2023, Environmental ResearchCitation Excerpt :CICC 23833 was purchased from the China Industrial Microbial Strain Conservation Center (CICC), and the storage method was refrigerator freezing at −80 °C. The bacteria were incubated in Luria Broth (LB) medium at 30 °C and shaken at 120 rpm (Desai et al., 2008). After 36 h of incubation, the bacteria were collected by centrifugation at 4 °C for 5 min at 6000 rpm and then washed three times with sterile deionized water to obtain the bacterial cells.