Review
Cobalt and antimony: genotoxicity and carcinogenicity

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Abstract

The purpose of this review is to summarise the data concerning genotoxicity and carcinogenicity of Co and Sb. Both metals have multiple industrial and/or therapeutical applications, depending on the considered species. Cobalt is used for the production of alloys and hard metal (cemented carbide), diamond polishing, drying agents, pigments and catalysts. Occupational exposure to cobalt may result in adverse health effects in different organs or tissues. Antimony trioxide is primarily used as a flame retardant in rubber, plastics, pigments, adhesives, textiles, and paper. Antimony potassium tartrate has been used worldwide as an anti-shistosomal drug. Pentavalent antimony compounds have been used for the treatment of leishmaniasis.

Co(II) ions are genotoxic in vitro and in vivo, and carcinogenic in rodents. Co metal is genotoxic in vitro. Hard metal dust, of which occupational exposure is linked to an increased lung cancer risk, is proven to be genotoxic in vitro and in vivo. Possibly, production of active oxygen species and/or DNA repair inhibition are mechanisms involved. Given the recently provided proof for in vitro and in vivo genotoxic potential of hard metal dust, the mechanistic evidence of elevated production of active oxygen species and the epidemiological data on increased cancer risk, it may be advisable to consider the possibility of a new evaluation by IARC.

Both trivalent and pentavalent antimony compounds are generally negative in non-mammalian genotoxicity tests, while mammalian test systems usually give positive results for Sb(III) and negative results for Sb(V) compounds. Assessment of the in vivo potential of Sb2O3 to induce chromosome aberrations (CA) gave conflicting results. Animal carcinogenicity data were concluded sufficient for Sb2O3 by IARC. Human carcinogenicity data is difficult to evaluate given the frequent co-exposure to arsenic. Possible mechanisms of action, including potential to produce active oxygen species and to interfere with DNA repair systems, still need further investigation.

Introduction

Beside other metals such as nickel, cadmium or chromium for which the genotoxic and carcinogenic properties have been extensively studied, cobalt (Co) and antimony (Sb) have received relatively less attention, probably because their commercial and industrial applications are more limited. Significant knowledge about the genotoxic properties of these elements has, however, been produced in recent years and potential mechanisms of action have been investigated. The purpose of this review is to summarise in a structured way the data available concerning genotoxic and carcinogenic hazards of Co and Sb. An overview of the in vitro and in vivo genotoxicity studies is given in Table 1, Table 2.

Section snippets

Cobalt

Cobalt has a molecular weight of 58.9 and an atomic number of 27. In the Periodic Table, close to other transition metals, it is situated in group 8, together with rhodium and iridium and it can occur in four oxidation states (0, +2, +3 and +4). The +2 and the ground state are the most common. Cobalt occurs in the minerals cobaltite (Co, Fe) AsS, smaltite (CoAs2), and erythrite Co3(AsO4)2·8H2O, and is often associated with nickel, silver, lead, copper, and iron ores, from which it is most

Antimony

Antimony has a molecular weight of 121.76 and an atomic number of 51. In the Periodic Table, it is situated in group 5a, between arsenic and bismuth and it can occur in four oxidation states (0, −3, +3 and +5). The +III state is the most common and stable. Antimony is often referred to as a metalloid, indicating that it displays both metallic and non-metallic characteristics. Antimony is mainly produced from stibnite ores (antimony trisulfide) or as a by-product of the smelting of primary lead

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