Asbestos and mesothelioma in South Africa
Section snippets
History
Asbestos is a remarkable material and has been used by humans for many years.4000 before the Christian era (BCE) Asbestos was used for wicks in lamps and candles. “Asbestos” means inextinguishable or unquenchable. 2000–3000 BCE Embalmed bodies of Egyptian pharaohs were wrapped in asbestos clothes to offset the ravages of time. 2500 BCE Used in Finland to strengthen clay pots. 800–900 AD Anecdotal evidence of Charlemagne’s table cloth made from woven asbestos. 1000 Mediterranean people used chrysotile
South African mining
Blue asbestos (crocidolite) was first discovered in South Africa in 1805. It was originally named “Woolstone”. All commercial asbestos fibres were mined in South Africa. Mining reached its peak in 1977 with the export of >380,000 tons and 20,000 miners were employed in the asbestos mining industry.
Crocidolite
The name was coined in 1831 by Hausman, a German geologist, from the Greek “Krokis” meaning woolly and “lithos” meaning rock. It is also known as blue asbestos. South African mining of crocidolite began in the mid 1800s. Initially, the mining took place with many small digging operations—“outcrop mining”. The mining and milling are highly labour intensive, with the fibre cobbled from the rock by hand-held hammers, sieved by hand, sorted by a combination of manual and mechanised methods and
Asbestos and mesothelioma
In 1960, Wagner reported the link between asbestos and mesothelioma as described above. In 1960, Pneumoconiosis Research Unit undertook a survey of every 10th house in areas at risk. They found an alarming incidence of mesothelioma in and out of the industry. In addition, 4.8% of the population outside the industry had asbestos fibres in their sputum. The fibre concentration in the general ambient atmosphere was measured at 0.09 fibres/ml. Webster informed the mining houses. This had the
Mesothelioma and the mining industry
Four case series have been published in South Africa that detail the source of exposure in >500 cases of histologically proven malignant mesothelioma [5], [6], [7].
If we remove the unknown and no exposures, mining-related exposures represent 40% of those mesotheliomas for which exposure is known. The majority of them are related to crocidolite exposure, which is considered to be more carcinogenic than the other fibres. The biologically active or inhaleable particles are those with a diameter of
Mesothelioma and secondary industry
The majority of the reported mesothelioma cases result from exposure to asbestos in its many and varied uses in secondary industry. Three major occupations at risk stand out:
- 1.
the maintenance of steam locomotive and other railway-related procedures;
- 2.
the asbestos cement industry; and
- 3.
boilermakers and other artisans who use asbestos for insulation applications.
Mesothelioma from environmental exposure
A high proportion (26%) of mesothelioma in patients in South Africa is attributed to environmental origin, particularly in the Northern Cape area. Of all environmental cases in South Africa, 93% originate from exposure to crocidolite in that area. An interesting observation is the high incidence of women and children affected (>70% of all reported environmental cases). This is presumably due to asbestos brought home in the hair and clothes of the miners. The closure of the last mine is
Conclusion
The story of mesothelioma within South Africa is dismal indeed. More than 2700 South Africans have died of mesothelioma. Government officials have failed to prevent the disease and protect citizens. Mine owners have focussed excessively on profit. The legal system has offered no means of redress for patients with malignant mesothelioma resulting from environmental exposure. The medical community has had minimal impact on policy and/or practices.
Some recent developments are a little more
References (7)
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Diffuse pleural mesotheliomas and asbestos exposure in the Northwestern Cape Province
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(1960) Asbestosis and malignancy
S. Afr. Med. J.
(1973)- et al.
Mesothelioma in South Africa 1976–84: incidence and case characteristics
Int. J. Epidemiol.
(1989)
Cited by (31)
Iron links endogenous and exogenous nanoparticles
2023, Archives of Biochemistry and BiophysicsSize characteristics of asbestiform fibers in lung tissue of animals that grazed in areas rich in ophiolitic outcrops in Central Calabria (Southern Italy)
2023, Science of the Total EnvironmentCitation Excerpt :Due to human activities or weathering processes, mineral asbestos-bearing rocks could release fibers in the surrounding environment, representing a potential risk for human health (Bloise et al., 2016; Bloise et al., 2019; Cavallo and Rimoldi, 2013; Gamble and Gibbs, 2008; Karagüzel and Kiliç, 2000; Langer, 2008; Pugnaloni et al., 2013; Suzuki et al., 2005). Several studies (Abratt et al., 2004; Hansen et al., 1998; Magnani et al., 2001) showed an association with environmental exposure to asbestos or other mineral fibers and an increased risk of mesothelioma. Recently, in Calabria a possible release of asbestos fibers in the environment was considered (Bloise et al., 2014; Campopiano et al., 2020; Pacella et al., 2010; Punturo et al., 2015).
Environmental contamination by naturally occurring asbestos (NOA): Analysis of sentinel animal lung tissue
2020, Science of the Total EnvironmentCitation Excerpt :These pathologies were already known in the Fifties and Sixties and are well described in numerous publications (to name a few: Davis, 1984; FIOH, 2014; IARC, 2012; Larson et al., 2012; WHO, 2014). An association with environmental exposure to asbestos or other mineral fibers and an increased risk of mesothelioma were found in several locations including Italy (Soffritti et al., 2004), New Caledonia (Baumann et al., 2011), Turkey (Carbone et al., 2011), Australia (Hansen et al., 1998), and South Africa (Abratt et al., 2004) when NOA outcrops are close to residential areas. Exposure to asbestos fibers can determine the formation of ferruginous bodies, fibers of asbestos covered by a ferritin, an iron-protein coat, in the lung.
Incidence of haematological malignancies, Eastern Cape Province; South Africa, 2004–2013
2018, Cancer EpidemiologyCitation Excerpt :According to researchers in Europe, 72% of incident HMs are classified as rare cancers [36]. Some rare cancer subtypes are regarded as potential environmental sentinels or a warning of an unmeasured hazardous exposure [37,38]. Estimating and monitoring the burden of rare cancers should therefore be afforded high priority within national cancer control programs.
Africa's growing cancer burden: Environmental and occupational contributions
2012, Cancer EpidemiologyCitation Excerpt :Exposure routes and cancer burdens due to asbestos are multi-fold and are already being borne out in the countries where consumption was highest. In South Africa, the mesothelioma burden lies in miners, workers in secondary industries and environmental exposures in the vicinities of old mines/industries, from dust and waste disposed nearby [46]. Egypt and Algeria have begun to suffer the start of their mesothelioma epidemics [17].
Airborne asbestos fibres and mesothelioma in the last 20 years in Egypt: A review
2011, Atmospheric Pollution ResearchCitation Excerpt :Chrysotile is the common asbestos type used and accounts for 95% of the world's production (Smith and Wright, 1996). Asbestos has been recognized in Egypt for a long time as it was used by Egyptians for mummification (Abratt et al., 2004). Industrialization utilizing asbestos started in Egypt in 1948 by Sigwart El–Maasara Company in south Cairo, after which 14 asbestos factories were presented by the year 2004 (Allen, 2006).