Pathways for sustainable development of mixed crop livestock systems: Taking a livestock and pro-poor approach☆
Introduction
Crop livestock systems in developing countries play a major role in the livelihoods of millions of people whilst providing significant quantities of both livestock and crop food products (Herrero et al., 2010). Recent estimates indicate that over two thirds of the human population live in intensive and extensive mixed systems and the cities within them, with a significant portion of their income coming from diverse livestock-related activities. These are not only livestock rearers but also traders, market agents, and processors. Currently mixed systems produce 65% of the beef, 75% of the milk and 55% of the lamb in the developing world as well as almost 50% of global cereals (Herrero et al., 2009a, Herrero et al., 2010). The importance of crop livestock systems in providing livestock and crop products is not new and for at least two decades, research and development strategies and investments have explored the potential of such systems to address developing country food needs and mitigate poverty (for example: Lenné and Thomas, 2006, McIntire et al., 1992, Parthasarathy Rao and Birthal, 2008, Williams et al., 2004). However, the apparent potential appears to be still unrealised and, in many of these systems, levels of poverty are significant and crop and livestock production both remain low. In general, agricultural development as a whole has been crop-dominated; however, in the coming decades, it is the livestock sector that is likely to face the most significant changes. The question of whether crop livestock systems in developing countries really can respond to the substantial increasing demands for food of both crop and livestock origin without compromising livelihoods, food security, equity or the environment remains. The ability of such systems to adapt to the impacts of climate change and their impacts on climate parameters also needs to be considered. Trade-offs are many and diverse, and solutions need to be innovative, beginning with social, institutional and policy dimensions before technologies are incorporated whilst taking cognizance of specific issues that need to be addressed if transitions are to be pro-poor (McDermott et al., 2010). The livestock focus needs to be considered alongside a number of recent global discussions that have highlighted concerns regarding livestock production and consumption in relation to the environment (Steinfeld et al., 2006), social dimensions (Johnson and Theime, 2009) and, although not considered here, human and animal health (Bonfoh et al., 2010, Perry and Grace, 2009, Randolph et al., 2007). In this paper we focus on the livestock (mainly ruminant) sector because of its importance as a pro-poor engine of growth and the potential to improve overall system productivity (including the crop sector) as well as responding to significant livestock commodity demands. After a brief overview of the ongoing transformation of crop livestock systems and implications for the poor, we consider some of the institutional and process aspects related to smallholder participation in livestock commodity markets, and in relation to the challenge of improving production efficiency, focus on issues related to livestock feed and environmental implications.
Section snippets
Transformation of the livestock sector and implications for crop livestock systems
Here we consider the transition of the livestock sector and its implications, comparing some of the features of the changes already experienced in developed countries with potential developing country trajectories of change. We then address the implications of system intensity, economic transition and livestock commodities on the potential engagement of small holders in future livestock commodity production and marketing.
Opportunities and challenges — addressing institutional and process aspects and environmental dimensions of crop livestock systems transition
Developed and developing country crop livestock systems have major structural differences that lead to differences in social and environmental impacts (McDermott et al., 2010). Social, equity and livelihood issues are taken care of in developed countries but environmental issues receive significant attention. For developing countries, it is usually the reverse, with social and livelihood issues predominating and at present relatively limited consideration of environmental dimensions, stressing
Conclusions
Sustainable intensification of mixed crop livestock systems is not a panacea answer for global food security or poverty alleviation, but there are potential opportunities in the case of some livestock sectors and some development stages – notably dairy sectors in agricultural or transforming economies – to make significant future contributions. In some instances there may be a rapid transition to intensive systems which imply other strategies for the livelihoods of the poor will be required.
Conflict of interest
With regard to our paper “Pathways for sustainable development of mixed crop livestock systems: Taking a livestock and pro-poor approach” to be published in a special issue of Livestock Science, we confirm that there is no conflict of interest.
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2020, World Development PerspectivesCitation Excerpt :The process is driven by emergent farmers with land holdings between 2 and 20 ha, and male farm managers benefit to a higher degree than their female counterparts. If we combine rural areas with the cities within, it is estimated that two thirds of the global population live in regions characterized by extensive or intensive crop-livestock systems (Tarawali, Herrero, Descheemaerk, Grings, & Blümmel, 2011). The scope of these systems serve multiple purposes: crops and crop residues provide animal feeds; manure functions as organic fertilizer; animals are used as traction for land preparation and transportation; there is nutritional complementarity; and marketing of crops and animal products provide incomes.
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This paper is part of the special issue entitled "Assessment for Sustainable Development of Animal Production Systems" Guest Edited by Akke van der Zijpp.
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Present address: CSIRO Sustainable Ecosystems, PMB2, Glen Osmond, SA 5064, Australia.