Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology
Ion homeostasis and interrenal stress responses in juvenile Pacific herring, Clupea pallasi, exposed to the water-soluble fraction of crude oil
Introduction
Petroleum-derived hydrocarbons are a major contributor to the contamination of aquatic environments. Approximately 5 million tons of crude oil from a variety of sources enters the marine environment each year (Neff, 1990). Typical concentrations of total hydrocarbons in contaminated marine coastal waters can be as high as 80 μg/L, with occasional reports of up to 500 μg/L in the Arabian Gulf (Badawy and Al-Harthy, 1991, Madany et al., 1994, Alkindi et al., 1996). Much attention has been paid to large crude petroleum spills and their visible surface effects, however, of more recent concern are the potential effects of dissolved hydrocarbons, which are the most available to marine biota (Neff and Anderson, 1981). Of particular interest are the polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), which are known to produce a myriad of lethal and sublethal effects in a wide range of biota.
The potential effects of hydrocarbons on marine benthic and intertidal organisms have been the primary focus of research to date. Notwithstanding, organisms that spend some or most of their lifecycle in the pelagic environment, such as the Pacific herring (Clupea pallasi), may also be negatively impacted by exposure. The acute toxicity of oil and its components have been well documented for several teleosts (Anderson et al., 1974, Rice et al., 1987) and reported effects in larval and juvenile stages include morphological, histopathological and genetic damage (Brown et al., 1996, Hose et al., 1996, Kocan et al., 1996, McGurk and Brown, 1996, Norcross et al., 1996, Carls, 1987, Carls et al., 1999, Heintz et al., 1999). Recently, work on the potential mechanisms underlying the common suite of PAH-induced developmental abnormalities in fish have been undertaken (Incardona et al., 2004). Still, more information is certainly needed on sublethal effects to further predictions regarding the risks of exposure to pelagic populations.
The exposure of fish to sublethal concentrations of contaminants can disturb homeostasis and impose considerable stress on physiological systems. The stress responses in teleosts is well documented and involves a series of cellular (e.g. heat shock protein production), neuroendocrine (e.g. catecholamines and corticosteroid release), biochemical (hyperlacticemia and hyperglycemia) and organismal responses (e.g. reduced growth, predisposition to disease, impaired reproduction and a reduced capacity to tolerate subsequent stress [Adams, 1990]), depending on the stressor and duration of its imposition.
Several reasons prompted an examination of the neuroendocrine and biochemical stress responses of juvenile Pacific herring exposed acutely and chronically to the WSF of crude oil. First, the paradigm of the neuroendocrine stress response is well documented in teleosts, and generally yields a consistent pattern for xenobiotic stressors. Second, fish are exposed to dissolved pollutants via an extensive respiratory surface and, in seawater, also by drinking. The high bioavailability of many chemicals in water, in combination with a variety of highly sensitive perceptive mechanisms in the integument, typically generate an integrated stress response in fish in addition to toxic effects. The ability of fish to mount an appropriate stress response, and the negative consequences associated with chronic stress, give its measurement both evolutionary and ecological significance.
Section snippets
Fish
Juvenile Pacific herring (8.2 to 13.8 g) were obtained through a local supplier in West Vancouver, BC. Fish were transported to facilities at the Fisheries and Oceans Canada, West Vancouver Laboratory, BC, with a minimal use of nets to reduce trauma to the young fish. Fish were held in 500-L fiberglass tanks supplied with flowing filtered seawater, salinity 31 ppt, water temperature 11.0 ± 0.5 °C and dissolved O2 content above 95% saturation. Following transfer, mortality in the first week was
Chemical analysis
Initial aqueous TPAH concentrations in exposure tanks were: control (0.07 to 0.24 μg/L), low (7.3 to 12.1 μg/L), medium (26.2 to 49.6 μg/L) and high (78.3 to 120.2 μg/L). TPAH concentrations declined with time, and since declines were similar across treatments, each exposure treatment remained distinct (Fig. 1). Comparable aqueous concentrations were reported by Carls et al. (1995) using a similar design. In that study, alkane concentrations ranged from 1.28 μg/L (control) to 119 μg/L with
Discussion
This study focused on the impacts of aqueous hydrocarbon exposure on an economically and ecologically important teleost, the Pacific herring, and successfully utilized a previous method for exposing fish to aqueous hydrocarbons generated from crude oil (Carls et al., 1995) in which smaller and more volatile hydrocarbons (e.g. naphthalenes) predominate initially, with larger PAHs (e.g. phenanthrenes) becoming relatively more abundant with time. This study documented the induction of
Acknowledgements
The research described here was supported by the Exxon Valdez Oil Spill Trustee Council through contracts with the Alaska Department of Fish to CJK and APF. However, the findings and conclusions presented by the authors are their own and do not necessarily reflect the view or position either agency. We greatly appreciate the analytical chemistry support provided us by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, National Marine Fisheries Service, Auke Bay Laboratory, AK. Fisheries and
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2022, Aquatic ToxicologyCitation Excerpt :Dilbit spill events point to the importance of research into the effects of dissolved low [TPAC] through a range of exposure durations on ecologically relevant physiological functions in species at risk; here, an evaluation of aerobic capacity, swim performance, and exercise recovery in sockeye salmon was performed. The passive diffuser system used generated a CLB WSFd with TPAC concentrations as reported previously (3.5-100 μg/L, Lin et al., 2020; Alderman et al., 2017a, b, 2018; Avey et al., 2020), as well as for WSFds of Alaska North Slope crude oil (ANSCO) (7.4-127.0 μg/L; Kennedy and Farrell, 2005, 2006, 2008). WSFds were initially dominated by volatile and low molecular weight hydrocarbons (e.g., BTEX, naphthalene), and high molecular weight compounds becoming relatively more prominent as exposures progress in conjunction with declining total [TPAC] (Lin et al., 2020) as is found during the normal weathering process (Alsaadi et al., 2018a; NASEM, 2016).
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2021, Marine Environmental ResearchCitation Excerpt :It is also possible that dilbit-exposed fish had lower stored glycogen and higher lactate levels before the swim test due to a higher basal glycolytic activity (e.g., phosphofructokinase, lactate dehydrogenase, creatine phosphokinase activities) or stress response. Exposure to crude oil and PAHs can initiate a physiological stress response and elevate of circulating catecholamine and cortisol levels (Hontela et al., 1992; Kennedy and Farrell, 2005), increasing the metabolism of glycogen and accumulation of lactate (George et al., 2013). Stress under WAF exposure may alter energy relocation towards fuel-intensive activities in fish, thereby negatively impacting anaerobic performance.