Feature ArticleThe roadmap of antimicrobial polymeric materials in macromolecular nanotechnology
Graphical abstract
Introduction
The incessant search of humans for healthcare, welfare and safety is undeniable and nowadays microbial infections are a great concern since many of the infectious diseases are reappearing in a more serious manner. One of the main problems associated with these goals is the widespread production, use, and abuse of antibiotics that have contributed to the emergence of multiple drug-resistant infectious organisms, so called superbugs as methicillin or vancomycin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus bacteria (MRSA or VRSA), respectively. As WHO recommends [1], infected people should receive expert care in appropriate facilities. In this sense, safe hospitals with aseptic biomedical devices, clean walls, furniture, clothes and other matters demand antimicrobial systems able to avoid the transmission and the extent of contagious illness. Nowadays, there is a great diversity of commercial products with antimicrobial properties, e.g. air conditioning equipment, freezes, filters, paints, toys, kitchen utensils, towels, paper and so on.
On the other hand, nanotechnology consists of the construction of functional materials, devices, and systems with novel and valuable properties through the control, manipulation and organization of matter at the nanometer length scale (from 1 to 100 nm). Nanomaterials might frequently exhibit different and/or enhanced physical and chemical behaviors with respect to those proved at the bulk, fact that has converted to nanotechnology in an exponentially growing industry. Then, where is the fear on nanoscience and nanotechnology? People usually think in the incorporation of metallic or inorganic nanoparticles, some of them being probably toxic. The effect on the body of these nanosized particles is difficult to be predicted and, at present, it is not completely understood. Besides, people are unaware of their long-term effects over health, well-being and environment. All these reasons make nanomaterials to provide sometimes insecurity to the population, in general, and to the scientific community, in particular. In this regard, nanomaterials based on polymers and, specifically, antimicrobial polymeric materials due to their intrinsic characteristics surpass the created expectative goals to solve all these problems. Then, polymers are the preferred materials for many applications, such as food packaging, biomedical devices or water purification systems because of their excellent processing characteristics and their variety of mechanical properties. These antimicrobial polymeric materials are divided into four categories [2]: (i) those systems presenting antimicrobial activity by themselves; (ii) polymers chemically modified to confer this specific activity; (iii) polymers blended with organic active compounds with low or high molecular weights (i.e. biocides or antimicrobial polymers); and (iv) polymers blended with inorganic active substances. Accordingly, the aim of this present article is the development of polymeric materials with antimicrobial activity [2], [3] by using the nanoscience and nanotechnology fields for targeting the different challenges in the treatment of infectious diseases [4]. The first part of the article focuses the attention on the methodologies with capability of leading to antimicrobial polymeric nanomaterials. This section is, then, divided in three different approaches: the first one based on antimicrobial polymeric materials and, particularly, their self-assembled polymer nanostructures that offer advantages over the small molecules of antibiotics and are, in principle, less susceptible to development of resistance by bacteria. This last feature is because those molecules destroy bacterial membranes instead of interacting with the metabolic process of the microorganisms, the opportunity for mutation being in this way reduced. The second assumption is related to polymeric particles that are versatile and effective carriers in drug delivery since they can be designed in a variety of morphologies and functionalities. Then, they offer the possibility of generating smart systems. Most of methodologies employed in this section are common to those used in unloaded polymers. The last one corresponds with the incorporation of antimicrobial inorganic nanoparticles into a polymeric matrix and the subsequent formation of polymeric nanocomposites. This hypothesis has undergone an important growth in the development of antimicrobial materials. On the other hand, the second part of the article will address the creation of micro and nanostructuration on polymeric surfaces, topic that is nowadays attracting an increasing attention in order to reduce the bacterial adhesion. To conclude, some considerations will be presented on the future evolution of this important field.
Section snippets
Self-assembly
Amphiphilic polymers can develop nanostructures, such as polymeric micelles with sizes ranging the nanoscale by their self-association in water above the critical micelle concentration (CMC). This fact represents one of the most versatile nanotechnology tools to enhance the aqueous solubility of poorly-water soluble substances, as will be described below (Section 1.2).
Polycations and their self-assembly are one of the most generally studied systems to combat infections within the antimicrobial
Effect of nanotextured polymer surfaces on antimicrobial activity
As described above the chemical modification of the material surface is widely used not only to inhibit the bacterial growth but also to prevent the biofilm formation. Nevertheless, it is accepted that the suppression of the bacterial adhesion is the most effective way to fight against bacterial biofilm. Chemical modification presents, however, several drawbacks such as the loss of efficiency over time or once the drug is released. Recently, attention has been also moved toward designing the
The roadmap of antimicrobial polymeric materials in nanotechnology
The nanoscience and nanotechnology are tools to design, understand, create, and manipulate matter at the nanoscale, in the present situation, antimicrobial polymeric materials. As shown, there are different methodologies to achieve these aimed materials, such as self-assembly of polymers, emulsion-evaporation, precipitation, electrospinning, spray, gelation, polymerization, blend process or the nanostructuration of surfaces. Indeed, these technologies can be used with antimicrobial polymers or
Concluding remarks
Herein we have presented some of the possibilities that nanoscience and nanotechnology offer for antimicrobial polymeric materials expansion. Like in other fields, nanotechnology is enormously contributing to the development of novel treatments and methodologies more efficient and safe to fight against microbial infections. Nowadays the emergence of antibiotic resistance as well as other problems associated with complications in immunodeficient patients or cancer treatments create new
Acknowledgements
We thank the financial support of MINECO (Project MAT2010-17016 and MAT2013-47902-C2-1-R) and A. Muñoz-Bonilla thanks MINECO for her Ramon y Cajal contract.
A. Muñoz-Bonilla obtained in 2006 the PhD in Chemistry “European Doctorate Mention” under the supervision of Dr. M. Fernández-García working at the Institute of Polymer Science and Technology (ICTP-CSIC). During 2005 she carried out a research stay at the University of Warwick, (UK) with Prof. D.M. Haddleton. She conducted in 2007–2008 a postdoc in the Laboratoire de Chimie des Polymères Organiques at the Université de Bordeaux (France) with Dr. J. Rodríguez-Hernández and another postdoctoral
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A. Muñoz-Bonilla obtained in 2006 the PhD in Chemistry “European Doctorate Mention” under the supervision of Dr. M. Fernández-García working at the Institute of Polymer Science and Technology (ICTP-CSIC). During 2005 she carried out a research stay at the University of Warwick, (UK) with Prof. D.M. Haddleton. She conducted in 2007–2008 a postdoc in the Laboratoire de Chimie des Polymères Organiques at the Université de Bordeaux (France) with Dr. J. Rodríguez-Hernández and another postdoctoral stay from 2008 to 2010 at Eindhoven University of Technology (The Netherlands) with Prof. J.P.A. Heuts. She went back to the ICTP-CSIC from 2010 to 2014 focusing her research on the synthesis of complex architectures by controlled polymerization techniques as well as on the preparation of hierarchical structured surfaces. Currently she works as Ramon y Cajal researcher at the Autónoma University of Madrid, where she is involved in magnetic hybrid materials.
M. Fernández-García obtained the PhD in Chemistry (Complutense University of Madrid) under the supervision of Dr. E.L. Madruga in 1995 working at the Institute of Polymer Science and Technology (ICTP-CSIC). She conducted her postdoctoral work at the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) (Maryland, USA) with Dr. M.Y.M. Chiang during the period 1997–1998. She also performed at short stay in 2000 at Technical University of Clausthal (Germany) with Prof. G. Schmitd-Naake. She was recruited at ICTP-CSIC in 1999. Her main research interest involves the synthesis of new polymers and their structuration at micro and nanoscale as well as their applications as multifunctional materials. She has a wide experience in conventional or controlled radical polymerization, structural and morphological characterization of polymeric systems.