Long-term effects of eight soil health treatments to control plant-parasitic nematodes and Verticillium dahliae in agro-ecosystems
Introduction
The primary goal in intensively managed agro-ecosystems is to maximise economic returns of crop production (quantity and quality) while minimising problems caused by pests and pathogens. These intensively managed ecosystems are often facing problems with plant-parasitic nematodes, such as root-lesion (Pratylenchidae), root-knot (Meloidogynidae) and stubby-root nematodes (Trichodoridae), usually in combination with soil fungi, such as Rhizoctonia solani and Verticillium dahliae. Agricultural chemicals are often used to control these soil pathogens. Due to societal pressure and resultant legislative regulation, most chemical nematicides have already been phased out, or are under critical review, in the European Union (EU) and in many other areas of the world. Therefore, there is an urgent need to test and develop sustainable methods for management of soil pathogens (Martin, 2003, Noling and Becker, 1994).
For temperate regions, many of the options are based on organic amendments which release toxic metabolites, or plant secondary metabolites (Akhtar and Malik, 2000, Oka, 2010, Rodriguez-kabana, 1986, Rodriguez-kabana et al., 1987). Other possibilities for controlling soil pathogens are the use of green manure crops (e.g. grass–clover) that have strong nematicidal effects (Hafez and Sundararaj, 2000, Thoden et al., 2009, Widmer and Abawi, 2002) or the addition of fresh organic material which produces anaerobic conditions (Blok et al., 2000). Furthermore some treatments make use of composts or non-composted waste products (e.g. chitin) or are based on physical methods (e.g. Cultivit). Interestingly some of these soil treatments might also stimulate populations of fungal and bacterial antagonists of nematodes (e.g., Trichoderma spp, Pasteuria penetrans, Pseudomonas spp. and chitinolytic bacteria), as well as typical nematode predators (e.g., nematophagous mites and Collembola) (Akhtar and Malik, 2000, Axelsen and Kristensen, 2000, Van den Boogert et al., 1994, Cooke, 1962, Wang et al., 2008).
However, in contrast with the observations of Oka (2010), Thoden et al. (2011) reviewed numerous studies in which numbers of plant-parasitic nematodes increased after application of some IPM (integrated pest management) measures. The most likely mechanisms for stimulating plant-parasitic nematodes is via nutrient-enrichment or changes in structure or functioning of the soil food web leading to increased plant growth or plant health (Ekschmitt et al., 1999, Ferris et al., 1998, Ferris et al., 2004, Griffiths, 1994, Ruess et al., 2002, Vestergaard, 2006, Yeates, 1987). Other mechanisms for stimulation of plant-parasitic nematodes could be multiplication on green manure crops (Hafez and Sundararaj, 2000, Hartsema et al., 2005, Hoek et al., 2006) or improvements of soil parameters (e.g. water-holding capacity, soil structure) followed by an increased plant growth (Siddiqui and Shaukat, 2004, Vasyukova et al., 2001, Zhang et al., 1998). In field experiments none of the above-mentioned soil treatments and their mechanisms are compared simultaneously so far.
Therefore the present study focusses on the long-term effects of eight Soil Health Treatments (compost, chitin, marigold, grass–clover, biofumigation, anearobic soil disinfestation, a physical control method and a combination of marigold, compost and chitin) and two control treatments (a chemical control with 300 L/ha Metam sodium and un untreated control) on plant-parasitic nematodes and V. dahliae. The experimental site is an arable field infested with the root-lesion nematode (P. penetrans) and the fungus V. dahliae. Pratylenchidae are migratory endoparasites that enter root tissues to feed and which can move through soil from root to root if resources become depleted (Loof, 1991). The ascomycete V. dahliae is a soil-borne fungus living in roots which is able to survive in the absence of a host in the form of highly persistent structures (microsclerotia) which are activated by root exudates (Garrett, 1970, Ocamb and Kommedahl, 1994, Termorshuizen et al., 2006). Both Pratylenchidae and Verticillium species have a wide host range that includes many crop and weed species. Additionally, roots of some poor-hosts, including cereals, legumes and brassicaceous crops are able to support low populations of V. dahliae (Davis et al., 2000) and P. penetrans, and therefore act as bridging hosts. A major concern when both pathogens are present is their synergistic interaction which increases the impact of V. dahliae in early dying or wilt disease (Rowe and Powelson, 2002a, Rowe and Powelson, 2002b). This disease is endemic in many countries throughout the world and causes a consistent yield constraint in many crops (potato, strawberry and many tree species). Since crop rotation has not been regarded as a practical tool for the management of V. dahliae and P. penetrans, primarily due to the few non-hosts of economic value, this disease complex requires intensive alternative management to maintain crop production (Goud et al., 2004, Harris et al., 1993, Hiemstra, 1995, MacGuidwin and Rouse, 1990, Rowe and Powelson, 2002a, Rowe and Powelson, 2002b, Termorshuizen et al., 2006).
The present study investigates the long-term effects of eight Soil Health Treatments (SHTs). The treatments were selected on their relevance to control soil pathogens mentioned in literature and the possibility to combine these treatments with arable crop rotations. So far there is no experiment available in which these treatments are compared simultaneously. It is hypothesised that: (1) the SHTs may control the plant-parasitic nematode P. penetrans and the soil fungus V. dahliae, (2) the SHTs will have consequences on other soil aspects such as chemical soil quality and finally, (3) that the SHTs will have an impact on the yield of several agricultural crops (potatoes, lilly and carrots).
Section snippets
Experimental design
The experimental field is located in Vredepeel, approximately 65 km south-east of Wageningen, The Netherlands. The soil texture is 1.1% clay, 3.7% silt and 94.9% fine sand. The site has been in agricultural cultivation since 1955, and has a mean annual air temperature of 10.2 °C and a mean annual precipitation of 766 mm. The site was chosen due to problems with the root-lesion nematode P. penetrans and the fungus V. dahliae. In the three years preceding the experiment (2003–2005), sugar beet,
Effect of SHTs on chemical characteristics
The minimum and maximum values for pH (5.3–5.9), OM (2.5–4.3%), CEC (37–65), N (693–1188 mg/kg), C/N (18.8–26.3), P (2.1–6.8 mg/kg), K (43.5–155.2 mg/kg), S (133–208 mg/kg), Mg (52.8–120.5 mg/kg) and Na (7.0–13.3 mg/kg) are all within the range with values normally found for this soil type (sandy soil) and management-regime (intensive arable farming with high input of organic manure and chemical fertilisers). For most of the soil characteristics, except for CEC and C/N, significant differences were
Discussion
The Soil Health Treatments CB, CH, MA and AD were more effective and longer-lasting in their control on P. penetrans and V. dahliae than CC. Some SHTs were quite specific and controlled only one soil pathogen, such as MA against P. penetrans, while CH and AD were much more effective against V. dahliae. Marigold suppression of P. penetrans was already known to be better and longer-lasting than chemical soil disinfestation (Evenhuis et al., 2004, Kimpinski and Sanderson, 2004, LaMondia, 2006,
Conclusions
Effective management of complexes of soil pathogens (i.e. nematodes and fungi) requires an integrated approach and the development of soil health treatments as alternatives for chemical control. The most successful soil health treatments should have effectiveness across a range of soil pathogens, be cost effective and do not cause permanent negative side effects upon other soil biota or on chemical and physical aspects of the soil. The present study did demonstrate that in comparison to
Acknowledgements
This work is funded by the ministry of economic affairs. Furthermore we would like to thank colleagues from Vredepeel (Marc Kroonen, Jos van Meyel, Harry Verstegen) and Lelystad (Andre Ramaker, Robert Jan Bolk, Wianda van Gastel, Willem van Geel and Leendert Molendijk) and Lisse (Marjan de Boer). Furthermore we would like to thank the companies who delivered materials or performed analyses (Orgaworld, Gembri, BLGGagroXpectus, NAKtuinbouw). Finally we would like to thank H. Ferris and C.A.M. van
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