Effect of N-enriched co-compost on transpiration efficiency and water-use efficiency of maize (Zea mays L.) under controlled irrigation
Introduction
In Ghana, loss of soil organic matter, plant nutrients, low water infiltration and water holding capacity of soils, are some of the factors that have rendered the soil unproductive (FAO-RAF, 2000). Despite the release of several high yielding maize (Z. mays L.) varieties to small-holder farmers and its high adoption rate, maize production levels in sub-Saharan Africa remains low (Kalonga, 2002). Water availability and cost is a limiting factor in crop production in Accra and other urban areas of Ghana. There is increased use of low quality water like untreated waste water from drains to meet crop water demand and use. This practice raised concerns because the waste water has been reported to contaminate food crops (Amoah et al., 2005). High inter-annual variability and erratic rainfall distribution in space and time, coupled with water loss through runoff, soil evaporation, drainage below the root zone, and decline in soil fertility status are some of the factors that account for low water-use efficiency and crop production (Mando, 1997). Several soil and water conservation technologies including tillage, stone walls, stone bunds, earthing bunds and dykes have been used to improve soil water infiltration, storage and availability (FAO-RAF, 2000, Zougmoré et al., 2004). However, sometimes, these technologies are difficult to adapt to the socio-economic and environmental conditions and needs of the beneficiaries (FAO-RAF, 2000). There is the need to develop technologies that optimise the use of the limited water and soil resources to achieve sustainable crop production (if pests and diseases are well controlled).
Application of organic manure and/or compost has been shown to improve the soil organic matter content (Adani et al., 2007, Soumare et al., 2003), water infiltration and retention (Agassi et al., 2004, Bationo et al., 1998) and the available water content of soils by 58–86% (Celik et al., 2004). Application of municipal solid waste compost increased available water in the root zone (mainly due to reduction in evaporation) and increase the yields of wheat crops from 1190 kg ha−1 in the control to 1520 kg ha−1 (Agassi et al., 2004). Compost application improved soil water storage in the sorghum rooting zone (0–80 cm) especially when combined with stone rows, grass strips (Bationo et al., 1998) and when rainfall was well distributed over the period (Zougmoré et al., 2004). The addition of 30% rice straw compost significantly increased plant dry biomass, fruit quality, yield and water-use efficiency of tomato (Ibrahim Ali et al., 2006).
Water-use efficiency (WUE) is defined as the yield of plant product (grain, silage, forage, tuber or other plant product of concern) produced per unit of water used (Power, 1983). However, in maize, sunflower, and wheat because the ratio ‘commercial yield/biomass’ varies significantly in response to water deficit (Fereres and Soriano, 2007, Katerji et al., 2008), the marketable yield is more interesting and represent liable economic value which is important in determining irrigation cost (Zairi et al., 2001). Therefore, Agronomists defined the ratio of economic yield to cumulative plant water use to produce the yield as physiological or agronomic water-use efficiency, WUEcwu (de Barros et al., 2007, Gregory, 2004, Howell, 2001, Katerji et al., 2008). And the ratio of biomass produced per unit of water transpired as transpiration efficiency, TE (Brück et al., 2001, Kemanian et al., 2005, Xin et al., 2008).
There is sparse information about the effects of specific nutrient sources or nitrogen fertiliser on WUECWU and TE. Besides, considerable variations exit in the literature on WUECWU for maize (Z. mays L.) across climates and soil management practices (Ben Nouna et al., 2000, Dagdelen et al., 2006, Fageria and Baligar, 2005, Fernandez et al., 1996, Karam et al., 2003, Katerji et al., 1996, Ting-Hui et al., 2006). Similarly, different views have been expressed on the effect of different rates of N application on TE. Cooper et al. (1987) and Corak et al. (1991) reported an increase in TE as N application increased. Walker and Richards (1985) reported that improved soil fertility increased TE only if the soil nutrient levels were low. On the other hand, Goudriaan and Van Keulen (1979), Ogola et al. (2002) found no effect of N levels on TE of maize (Z. mays L.). In the above the authors use different fertiliser sources and that may account for the different observations. Information on the effects of different fertiliser sources such as inorganic fertilisers or co-compost and its derivatives on TE, WUEcwu and yield of maize (Z. mays L.) as N application rate increases is paramount. It will increase the interest in the use of municipal waste compost which is vital for its efficient management and use in crop production especially in urban and peri-urban areas of developing countries. The study hypothesised that (i) different sources of fertiliser affect TE and WUEcwu of maize differently as N application rate increases; (ii) the use of enriched municipal waste co-compost will increase maize yield per unit of water consumed as compared to inorganic fertiliser; (iii) improved transpiration efficiency, water-use efficiency and nutrient uptake account for good plant growth and yield in enriched co-compost medium. The objectives of the study were to assess the effect of different rates of N-enriched municipal waste co-compost and its derivatives on TE, WUEcwu and yield of maize (Z. mays L.) in comparison to inorganic fertiliser.
Section snippets
Study area
The greenhouse pot experiment was conducted at the University of Ghana, College of Agriculture and Consumer Science, Crop Science Department Research Farm in Accra (Lat. 05° 39″ N; Long. 00° 09″ W). The site is about 77 m above sea level and is characterized by an average monthly maximum temperature of 34 °C over the growing period (10-year average), and a minimum temperature of 24 °C with a relative humidity of 94–58%, and a rainfall of about 36 mm (Table 1) (GMS, 2009).
Experimental design and treatment
The experiment was a split
Sources of fertiliser and effect on crop water use, crop water demand, transpiration rate and water consumption rate
There was no significant difference between the N application rates for any particular treatment; therefore results in this section are presented as averages across treatments. Maize crops from inorganic fertiliser or compost and its related treatments showed larger root volume as compared to soil alone (Fig. 1, Fig. 2). There was a relationship between root volume and crop water use and this was dependent on growth stage of the maize crop (Table 5). At the initial stages of plant growth
Discussion
Poor root development (Fig. 1, Fig. 2), differences in growth rate as indicated by smaller leaf area index and dry matter production (Table 9) could account for the lower cumulative water use by maize crop (Table 6) from soil alone as compared to plants from inorganic fertiliser or compost related treatments. On the contrary, rapid growth (as indicated by higher root volume and dry matter yield) may explain the higher and significant amount of cumulative water used by crops from EC, CO, NPK + (NH4
Conclusion
The hypothesis tested in this study has not been disproved. The different fertiliser sources showed different effect on transpiration efficiency (TE) and this was dependent on the growth stage of the plant. Increase in N application rate increased TE at the vegetative phase for fast nutrient releasing fertilisers (DFS, ECO, EC, NPK + (NH4)2SO4, (NH4)2SO4) and at the reproductive phase for slow nutrient releasing fertilisers (C and CO). The water-use efficiency (WUEcwu) of maize crop increased
Acknowledgements
This research was supported by the Swiss National Centre of Competence in Research, NCCR North-South. Our appreciation also goes to the Kumasi Metropolitan Assembly, Waste Management Department who provided logistical support and our reviewers for their invaluable contributions.
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