Abstract
Organochlorine pesticides have generated public concern worldwide because of their toxicity to human health and the environment, even at low concentrations, and their persistence, being mostly nonbiodegradable. The use of 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) has increased in recent decades, causing severe water contamination. Several treatments have been developed to degrade 2,4-D. This manuscript presents an overview of the physicochemical characteristics, uses, regulations, environmental and human health impacts of 2,4-D, and different advanced oxidation processes (AOPs) to degrade this organic compound, evaluating and comparing operation conditions, efficiencies, and intermediaries. Based on this review, 2,4-D degradation is highly efficient in ozonation (system O3/plasma, 99.8% in 30 min). Photocatalytic, photo-Fenton, and electrochemical processes have the optimal efficiencies of degradation and mineralization: 97%/79.67% (blue TiO2 nanotube arrays//UV), 100%/98% (Fe2+/H2O2/UV), and 100%/84.3% (MI-meso SnO2), respectively. The ozonation and electrochemical processes show high degradation efficiencies, but energy costs are also high, and photocatalysis is more expensive with a separation treatment used to recover the catalyst in the solution. The Fenton process is a viable economic-environmental option, but degradation efficiencies are often low (50–70%); however, they are increased when solar UV radiation is used (90–100%). AOPs are promising technologies for the degradation of organic pollutants in real wastewater, so evaluating their strengths and weaknesses is expected to help select viable operational conditions and obtain optimal efficiencies.
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Abbreviations
- ATZ:
-
Atrazine
- BQ:
-
Benzoquinone
- BOD:
-
Biochemical oxygen demand
- BDD:
-
Boron-doped diamond
- CB-GF:
-
Carbon black modified graphite felt
- Cat:
-
Catalyst
- COD:
-
Chemical oxygen demand
- Cl− :
-
Chloride ions
- ChHQ:
-
Chlorohydroquinone
- CP:
-
Chlorophenol
- CPA:
-
Chlorophenoxyacetic acid
- CR:
-
Chlororesorcinol
- CR:
-
Chlororesorcinol
- Co/PMS:
-
Cobalt/peroxymonosulfate
- Co-ppt:
-
Co-precipitation method
- TiO2@MgO-Fe2O3 :
-
Core of TiO2-shell structure of MgO-Fe2O3 as the catalyst
- J:
-
Current density
- CE:
-
Current efficiency
- I:
-
Current intensity
- DCC:
-
Dichlorocatechol
- DCP:
-
Dichlorophenol
- DCPA:
-
Dichlorophenoxyacetic acid
- DCR:
-
Dichlororesorcinol
- DOC:
-
Dissolved organic carbon
- EC50 :
-
Effective concentration 50
- R:
-
Electrical resistance
- ECMF:
-
Electrocatalytic ceramic membrane filtration
- EAOP:
-
Electrochemical advanced oxidation process
- EF:
-
Electro-Fenton
- EO:
-
Electro-oxidation
- FeOx:
-
Ferri-oxalate
- GAC:
-
Granular activated carbon
- GO:
-
Graphene oxide
- GF:
-
Graphite felt
- N1-EEGr-GF:
-
Graphite felt cathode modified with electrochemically exfoliated graphene doped with ammonium nitrate as the nitrogen source
- HQ:
-
Hydroquinone
- H-TiO2 vs C-TiO2 :
-
Hydrothermal TiO2 and commercial TiO2
- Fe-Ni/AC:
-
Iron and nickel based bimetallic loaded activated carbon
- Pb/b-PbO2 :
-
Lead dioxide coated on a lead bed
- G/b-PbO2 :
-
Lead dioxide coated on graphite
- SS316/b-PbO2 :
-
Lead dioxide coated on stainless steel 316
- LC50 :
-
Lethal concentration 50
- LD50 :
-
Lethal dose 50
- LI:
-
Light intensity
- LPMOCVD:
-
Low-pressure metal-organic chemical vapor deposition
- MAC:
-
Maximum allowable concentration
- Mw:
-
Microwave
- MCE:
-
Mineralization current efficiency
- MI-Meso SnO2 :
-
Molecular imprinted mesoporous SnO2 surface
- MI-TiO2@SnO2-Sb:
-
Molecular imprinting TiO2 coated by electrochemical SnO2-Sb films
- nZVI:
-
Nanoscale zero-valent iron
- nZVIPs@SN-GO:
-
Nanoscale zero-valent iron particles stabilized by sulfur/nitrogen dual-doped GO
- NOEC:
-
No observed effect concentration
- t30W:
-
Normalized illumination time. Time refers to a constant solar UV power of 30W/m2
- Ox:
-
Oxalate
- PC:
-
Peroxi-coagulation
- PMS:
-
Peroxymonosulfate
- PA:
-
Phenoxyacetic acid
- PEO:
-
Photoelectrochemical oxidation
- PEP:
-
Photoelectro-peroxone
- PF:
-
Photo-Fenton
- Pt-MMO:
-
Platinized mixed metal oxide
- PVC:
-
Polyvinyl chloride
- PSPC:
-
Pulsed switching peroxi-coagulation
- SCE:
-
Saturated calomel electrode (the reference electrode)
- SPF:
-
Solar photo-Fenton
- SS:
-
Stainless steel
- SL:
-
Sunlight
- TiO2 @CuFe2O4 :
-
TiO2 anchored on cupper ferrite as the catalyst
- PMS:
-
Peroxymonosulfate
- TiO2/ SGOTNT:
-
TiO2 nanotubes/silylated graphene oxide–based molecularly imprinted polymer as photocatalyst
- TDS:
-
Total dissolved solids
- TOC:
-
Total organic carbon
- VF:
-
Vibrio fischeri
- FeO/TiO2/AC:
-
Zero-valent iron/titanium dioxide based on activated carbon nanocomposite
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Girón-Navarro, R., Linares-Hernández, I., Teutli-Sequeira, E.A. et al. Evaluation and comparison of advanced oxidation processes for the degradation of 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D): a review. Environ Sci Pollut Res 28, 26325–26358 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-021-13730-y
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-021-13730-y