Abstract
The paper reviews graphitic carbon nitride–based nanostructured photocatalytic materials and nanofibres for applications in water purification. Titanium dioxide has shown unique features that continue to attract research and development (R&D) due to its unique properties such as availability, ultraviolet absorptivity, photocatalysis, adsorption of pollutants and solar cell engineering. Graphitic carbon nitride is an attractive photocatalyst due to its non-toxicity characteristics, good visible light absorption and good thermal and chemical stabilities. In water purification, nanofibres are currently noticed due to their distinctive properties of effective separation and sometimes elimination of organic pollutants in water. In this review, synthesis and utility of doped titanium dioxide and carbon nitride with metal nanoparticles and polymeric nanofibres from nanocomposites as effective materials for the degradation of organic contaminations from water are discussed. The history, current trends and future perspectives are highlighted.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
Data availability
All data and materials are available at university’s one drive portal and can be accessed anytime.
References
Abd El-Rehim HA, Hegazy ESA, Diaa DA (2012) Photo-catalytic degradation of Metanil yellow dye using TiO2 immobilized into polyvinyl alcohol/acrylic acid microgels prepared by ionizing radiation. React Funct Polym 72:823–831. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.reactfunctpolym.2012.07.009
Ahmed S, Rasul MG, Martens WN, Brown R, Hashib MA (2011) Advances in heterogeneous photocatalytic degradation of phenols and dyes in wastewater: a review. Water Air Soil Pollut 215:3–29. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11270-010-0456-3
Andriantsiferana C, Mohamed EF, Delmas H (2014) Photocatalytic degradation of an azo-dye on TiO2/activated carbon composite material. Environ Technol 35:355–363. https://doi.org/10.1080/09593330.2013.828094
Ansari S, Masoum S (2019) Molecularly imprinted polymers for capturing and sensing proteins: current progress and future implications. TrAC - Trends Anal Chem 114:29–47. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trac.2019.02.008
Aslam M, Kalyar MA, Raza ZA (2018) Polyvinyl alcohol: a review of research status and use of polyvinyl alcohol based nanocomposites. Polym Eng Sci 58:2119–2132. https://doi.org/10.1002/pen.24855
Atrei A, Ferrari M, Szieberth D (2010) Lepidocrocite-like structure of the TiO2 monolayer grown on Ag (100). Phys Chem Chem Phys 12:11587–11595. https://doi.org/10.1039/c0cp00173b
Barakat NAM, Kanjwal MA, Chronakis IS, Kim HY (2013) Influence of temperature on the photodegradation process using Ag-doped TiO2 nanostructures: negative impact with the nanofibers. J Mol Catal A Chem 366:333–340. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.molcata.2012.10.012
Beilke MC, Zewe JW, Clark JE, Olesik SV (2013) Aligned electrospun nanofibers for ultra-thin layer chromatography. Anal Chim Acta 761:201–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aca.2012.11.028
Bhattarai DP, Aguilar LE, Park CH, Kim CS (2018) A review on properties of natural and synthetic based electrospun fibrous materials for bone tissue engineering. Membranes (Basel) 8:1–24. https://doi.org/10.3390/membranes8030062
Bognitzki M, Czado W, Frese T et al (2001) Nanostructured fibers via electrospinning. Adv Mater 13:70–72. https://doi.org/10.1201/9781315366333
Cao S, Low J, Yu J, Jaroniec M (2015) Polymeric photocatalysts based on graphitic carbon nitride. Adv Mater 27:2150–2176. https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.201500033
Caruso RA, Schattka JH, Greiner A (2001) Titanium dioxide tubes from sol-gel coating of electrospun polymer fibers. Adv Mater 13:1577–1579. https://doi.org/10.1002/1521-4095(200110)13:20<1577::AID-ADMA1577>3.0.CO;2-S
Chai B, Peng T, Mao J, Zan L (2012) Graphitic carbon nitride (g-C3N4)–Pt-TiO2 nanocomposite as an efficient photocatalyst for hydrogen production under visible light irradiation. Phys Chem Chem Phys 14:16745–16752. https://doi.org/10.1039/c2cp42484c
Chen F, Liu P (2011) Conducting polyaniline nanoparticles and their dispersion for waterborne corrosion protection coatings. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces 3:2694–2702. https://doi.org/10.1021/am200488m
Chen X, Mao SS (2007) Titanium dioxide nanomaterials: synthesis, properties, modifications, and applications. Chem Rev 107:2891–2959. https://doi.org/10.1021/cr0500535
Chen R, Zhao S, Han G, Dong J (2008) Fabrication of the silver/polypyrrole/polyacrylonitrile composite nano fibrous mats. Mater Lett 62:4031–4034. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matlet.2008.05.054
Chen Y, Huang W, He D, Situ Y, Huang H (2014) Construction of heterostructured g-C3N4/Ag/TiO2 microspheres with enhanced photocatalysis performance under visible-light irradiation. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces 6:14405–14414. https://doi.org/10.1021/am503674e
Chen F, Yang H, Wang X, Yu H (2017) Facile synthesis and enhanced photocatalytic H2-evolution performance of NiS2-modified g-C3N4 photocatalysts. Chin J Catal 38:296–304. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1872-2067(16)62554-8
Cheng N, Tian J, Liu Q, Ge C, Qusti AH, Asiri AM, al-Youbi AO, Sun X (2013) Au-nanoparticle-loaded graphitic carbon nitride nanosheets: green photocatalytic synthesis and application toward the degradation of organic pollutants. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces 5:6815–6819. https://doi.org/10.1021/am401802r
Choi W, Termin A, Hoffmann MR (1994) The role of metal ion dopants in quantum-sized TiO2: correlation between photoreactivity and charge carrier recombination dynamics. J Phys Chem 98:13669–13679. https://doi.org/10.1021/j100102a038
Crane RA, Dickinson M, Popescu IC, Scott TB (2011) Magnetite and zero-valent iron nanoparticles for the remediation of uranium contaminated environmental water. Water Res 45:2931–2942. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2011.03.012
Das R, Ali E, Bee S et al (2014) Carbon nanotube membranes for water purification: a bright future in water desalination. Desalination 336:97–109. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2013.12.026
Devi LG, Kavitha R (2013) A review on non metal ion doped titania for the photocatalytic degradation of organic pollutants under UV/solar light: role of photogenerated charge carrier dynamics in enhancing the activity. Appl Catal B Environ 140–141:559–587. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apcatb.2013.04.035
Dong R, Tian B, Zhang J, Wang T, Tao Q, Bao S, Yang F, Zeng C (2013) AgBr@Ag/TiO2 core-shell composite with excellent visible light photocatalytic activity and hydrothermal stability. Catal Commun 38:16–20. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.catcom.2013.04.006
Drosou C, Krokida M, Biliaderis CG (2018) Composite pullulan-whey protein nanofibers made by electrospinning: impact of process parameters on fiber morphology and physical properties. Food Hydrocoll 77:726–735. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodhyd.2017.11.014
Drunka R, Grabis J, Jankovica D et al (2015) Microwave-assisted synthesis and photocatalytic properties of sulphur and platinum modified TiO2 nanofibers. IOP Conf Ser Mater Sci Eng 77:012010. https://doi.org/10.1088/1757-899X/77/1/012010
Duan J-j, Zhang L-n (2017) Robust and smart hydrogels based on natural polymers. Chin J Polym Sci (English Ed) 35:1165–1180. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10118-017-1983-9
Frank SN, Bard AJ (1977) Heterogeneous photocatalytic oxidation of cyanide ion in aqueous solutions at TiO2 powder. J Am Chem Soc 99:303–304. https://doi.org/10.1021/ja00443a081
Fujishima A, Zhang X (2006) Titanium dioxide photocatalysis: present situation and future approaches. Comptes Rendus Chim 9:750–760. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.crci.2005.02.055
Gao H, Yan S, Wang J, Zou Z (2014) Ion coordination significantly enhances the photocatalytic activity of graphitic-phase carbon nitride. Communication 43:8178–8183. https://doi.org/10.1039/c3dt53224k
Ge L, Han C, Liu J, Li Y (2011) Enhanced visible light photocatalytic activity of novel polymeric g-C3N4 loaded with Ag nanoparticles. Appl Catal A Gen 409–410:215–222. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apcata.2011.10.006
Gencturk A, Kahraman E, Güngör S, Özhan G, Özsoy Y, Sarac AS (2017) Polyurethane/hydroxypropyl cellulose electrospun nanofiber mats as potential transdermal drug delivery system: characterization studies and in vitro assays. Artif Cells, Nanomedicine Biotechnol 45:655–664. https://doi.org/10.3109/21691401.2016.1173047
Gholipour MR, Beland F, Do T-O (2016) Graphitic carbon nitride-titanium dioxide nanocomposite for photocatalytic hydrogen production under visible light. Int J Chem React Eng 14:1–8. https://doi.org/10.1515/ijcre-2015-0094
Goettmann F, Fischer A, Antonietti M, Thomas A (2006) Metal-free catalysis of sustainable Friedel-Crafts reactions: direct activation of benzene by carbon nitrides to avoid the use of metal chlorides and halogenated compounds. Chem Commun 43:4530–4532. https://doi.org/10.1039/b608532f
Grabowska E, Zaleska A, Sorgues S, Kunst M, Etcheberry A, Colbeau-Justin C, Remita H (2013) Modification of titanium(IV) dioxide with small silver nanoparticles: application in photocatalysis. J Phys Chem C 117:1955–1962. https://doi.org/10.1021/jp3112183
Hajibeygi M, Shabanian M, Khonakdar HA (2017) Amide–acid functional SiO2 nanocomposites based on new semi-crystalline poly(ether-sulfone-amide): thermal, combustion and mechanical studies. Polym Int 66:133–143. https://doi.org/10.1002/pi.5257
Han C, Ge L, Chen C, Li Y, Xiao X, Zhang Y, Guo L (2014) Novel visible light induced Co3O4-g-C3N4 heterojunction photocatalysts for efficient degradation of methyl orange. Appl Catal B Environ 147:546–553. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apcatb.2013.09.038
Hosseini MG, Shokri M, Khosravi M, Najjar R, Darbandi M (2011) Photodegradation of an azo dye by silver-doped nano-particulate titanium dioxide. Toxicol Environ Chem 93:1591–1601. https://doi.org/10.1080/02772248.2011.593521
Hu Y, Tsai H, Huang C (2003) Effect of brookite phase on the anatase–rutile transition in titania nanoparticles. J Eur Ceram Soc 23:691–696
Hu X, Liu S, Zhou G, Huang Y, Xie Z, Jing X (2014) Electrospinning of polymeric nanofibers for drug delivery applications. J Control Release 185:12–21. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jconrel.2014.04.018
Jeon S, Yun J, Lee Y, Kim H (2012) Preparation of poly(vinyl alcohol)/poly(acrylic acid)/TiO2/carbon nanotube composite nanofibers and their photobleaching properties. J Ind Eng Chem 18:487–491. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jiec.2011.11.068
Ji H, Chang F, Hu X, Qin W, Shen J (2013) Photocatalytic degradation of 2,4,6-trichlorophenol over g-C3N4 under visible light irradiation. Chem Eng J 218:183–190. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2012.12.033
Jia XP, Yu RC, Chen LC (2002) High-pressure pyrolysis study of C3N6H6: a route to preparing bulk C3N4. J Phys 14:11269–11273
Jiang H, Fang D, Hsiao BS, Chu B, Chen W (2004) Optimization and characterization of dextran membranes prepared by electrospinning. Biomacromolecules 5:326–333. https://doi.org/10.1021/bm034345w
Jin HJ, Park J, Valluzzi R, Cebe P, Kaplan DL (2004) Biomaterial films of Bombyx mori silk fibroin with poly(ethylene oxide). Biomacromolecules 5:711–717. https://doi.org/10.1021/bm0343287
Katoch A, Burkhart M, Hwang T, Sub S (2012) Synthesis of polyaniline/TiO2 hybrid nanoplates via a sol–gel chemical method. Chem Eng J 192:262–268. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2012.04.004
Kdidi S, Vaca-medina G, Peydecastaing J et al (2019) Electrostatic separation for sustainable production of rapeseed oil cake protein concentrate: effect of mechanical disruption on protein and lignocellulosic fiber separation. Powder Technol 344:10–16. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.powtec.2018.11.107
Kenawy ER, Abdel-Fattah YR (2002) Antimicrobial properties of modified and electrospun poly(vinyl phenol). Macromol Biosci 2:261–266. https://doi.org/10.1002/1616-5195(200208)2:6<261::AID-MABI261>3.0.CO;2-2
Khan MM, Lee J, Cho MH (2014) Worked in different universities/institutions in various capacities as follows: Au@TiO2 nanocomposites for the catalytic degradation of methyl orange and methylene blue: an electron relay effect. J Ind Eng Chem 20:1584–1590
Khan I, Saeed K, Khan I (2019) Nanoparticles: properties, applications and toxicities. Arab J Chem 12:908–931. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.arabjc.2017.05.011
Koelsch M, Cassaignon S, Thanh CT et al (2004) Electrochemical comparative study of titania (anatase, brookite and rutile) nanoparticles synthesized in aqueous medium. Thin Solid Films 452:86–92. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tsf.2003.11.150
Komatsu T (2001) Prototype carbon nitrides similar to the symmetric triangular form of melon. J Mater Chem 11:802–805. https://doi.org/10.1039/b007165j
Kozlova EA, Lyubina TP, Nasalevich MA, Vorontsov AV, Miller AV, Kaichev VV, Parmon VN (2011) Influence of the method of platinum deposition on activity and stability of Pt/TiO2 photocatalysts in the photocatalytic oxidation of dimethyl methylphosphonate. CATCOM 12:597–601. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.catcom.2010.12.007
Kroke E, Schwarz M, Horath-bordon E et al (2002) Tri-s-triazine derivatives. Part I. From trichloro-tri-s-triazine to graphitic C3N4 structures. New J Chem 26:508–512. https://doi.org/10.1039/b111062b
Kumar R, Priyanka M, Kartikey M, Aniruddha V (2019) Electrospinning production of nanofibrous membranes. Springer International Publishing
Kyselica R, Enikov ET, Anton R (2018) One- and two-dimensional electrodynamic steering of electrospun polymer nanofibers. Appl Phys Lett 113:183705. https://doi.org/10.1063/1.5052373
Laforgue A (2011) All-textile flexible supercapacitors using electrospun poly (3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) nanofibers. J Power Sources 196:559–564. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2010.07.007
Lee SK, Mills A (2003) Platinum and palladium in semiconductor photocatalytic systems. Platin Met Rev 47:61–72
Lee JB, Yang DH, Ph D (2011) Highly porous electrospun nanofibers enhanced by ultrasonication for improved cellular infiltration. Tissue Eng 17:2695–2702. https://doi.org/10.1089/ten.tea.2010.0709
Lee JH, Ansari MO, Lee J (2014) Worked in different universities/institutions in various capacities as follows: electrochemically active biofilm assisted synthesis of Ag@CeO2 nanocomposites for antimicrobial activity, photocatalysis and photoelectrodes
Lei P, Wang F, Gao X, Ding Y, Zhang S, Zhao J, Liu S, Yang M (2012) Immobilization of TiO2 nanoparticles in polymeric substrates by chemical bonding for multi-cycle photodegradation of organic pollutants. J Hazard Mater 227–228:185–194. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2012.05.029
Lei P, Wang F, Zhang S, Ding Y, Zhao J, Yang M (2014) Conjugation-grafted-TiO2 nanohybrid for high photocatalytic efficiency under visible light. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces 6:2370–2376. https://doi.org/10.1021/am4046537
Li D, Chen Z, Chen Y et al (2008) A new route for degradation of volatile organic compounds under visible light: using the bifunctional photocatalyst Pt/TiO2-xNx in H2-O2 atmosphere. 42:2130–2135
Li Z, Kong C, Lu G (2016) Visible photocatalytic water splitting and photocatalytic two-electron oxygen formation over Cu- and Fe-doped g-C3N4. J Phys Chem 120:56–63. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.jpcc.5b09469
Liang W, Li J, Jin Y, Tio C (2012) Photo-catalytic degradation of gaseous formaldehyde by TiO2/UV, Ag/TiO2/UV and Ce/TiO2/UV. Build Environ 51:345–350. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2011.12.007
Lin Y, Wu S, Yang C, Chen M, Li X (2019) Preparation of size-controlled silver phosphate catalysts and their enhanced photocatalysis performance via synergetic effect with MWCNTs and PANI. Appl Catal B Environ 245:71–86. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apcatb.2018.12.048
Liu J, Zhao Z, Jiang G (2008) Coating Fe3O4 magnetic nanoparticles with humic acid for high efficient removal of heavy metals in water. Environ Sci Technol 42:6949–6954
Liu Y, Wei JH, Xiong R, Pan CX, Shi J (2011) Enhanced visible light photocatalytic properties of Fe-doped TiO2 nanorod clusters and monodispersed nanoparticles. Appl Surf Sci 257:8121–8126. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apsusc.2011.04.121
Liu Z, Miao Y, Liu M et al (2014) Flexible polyaniline-coated TiO2/SiO2 nanofiber membranes with enhanced visible-light photocatalytic degradation performance. J Colloid Interface Sci 424:49–55. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcis.2014.03.009
Liu C, Wang L, Xu H, Wang S, Gao S, Ji X, Xu Q, Lan W (2016a) “One pot” green synthesis and the antibacterial activity of g-C3N4/Ag nanocomposites. Mater Lett 164:567–570. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matlet.2015.11.072
Liu X, Chen N, Li Y et al (2016b) A general nonaqueous sol-gel route to g-C3N4-coupling photocatalysts: with enhanced photodegradation toward RhB under visible-light. Nature:1–16. https://doi.org/10.1038/srep39531
Livraghi S, Czoska AM, Paganini MCÃ, Giamello E (2009) Preparation and spectroscopic characterization of visible light sensitized N doped TiO2 (rutile). J Solid State Chem 182:160–164. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jssc.2008.10.012
López R, Gómez R, Oros-Ruiz S (2011) Photophysical and photocatalytic properties of TiO2-Cr sol–gel prepared semiconductors. Catal Today 166:159–165. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cattod.2011.01.010
Lopresti F, Carfì Pavia F, Vitrano I, Kersaudy-Kerhoas M, Brucato V, la Carrubba V (2020) Effect of hydroxyapatite concentration and size on morpho-mechanical properties of PLA-based randomly oriented and aligned electrospun nanofibrous mats. J Mech Behav Biomed Mater 101:103449. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmbbm.2019.103449
Lv X-J, Fu W-F, Chang H-X, Zhang H, Cheng JS, Zhang GJ, Song Y, Hu CY, Li JH (2012) Hydrogen evolution from water using semiconductor nanoparticle/graphene composite photocatalysts without noble metals. J Mater Chem 22:1539–1546. https://doi.org/10.1039/c1jm14502a
Maduraiveeran G, Sasidharan M, Jin W (2019) Earth-abundant transition metal and metal oxide nanomaterials: synthesis and electrochemical applications. Prog Mater Sci 106:100574. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pmatsci.2019.100574
Mamba G, Mishra AK (2016) Graphitic carbon nitride (g-C3N4) nanocomposites: a new and exciting generation of visible light driven photocatalysts for environmental pollution remediation. Appl Catal B Environ 198:347–377. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apcatb.2016.05.052
Melnychuk N, Klymchenko AS (2018) DNA-functionalized dye-loaded polymeric nanoparticles: Ultrabright FRET platform for amplified detection of nucleic acids. J Am Chem Soc 140:10856–10865. https://doi.org/10.1021/jacs.8b05840
Mi HY, Jing X, Zheng Q, Fang L, Huang HX, Turng LS, Gong S (2018) High-performance flexible triboelectric nanogenerator based on porous aerogels and electrospun nanofibers for energy harvesting and sensitive self-powered sensing. Nano Energy 48:327–336. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nanoen.2018.03.050
Mills A, Le Hunte S (2000) An overview of semiconductor photocatalysis. J Photochem Photobiol A Chem 108:1–35
Miranda C, Mansilla H, Yáñez J et al (2013) Improved photocatalytic activity of g-C3N4/TiO2 composites prepared by a simple impregnation method. J Photochem Photobiol A Chem 253:16–21. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jphotochem.2012.12.014
Nagy A, Mestl G (1999) High temperature partial oxidation reactions over silver catalysts. Appl Catal A Gen 188:337–353
Ndikau M, Noah NM, Andala DM, Masika E (2017) Green synthesis and characterization of silver nanoparticles using Citrullus lanatus fruit rind extract. Int J Anal Chem 2017:1–10. https://doi.org/10.1155/2017/8108504
Nolan NT, Seery MK, Pillai SC (2009) Spectroscopic investigation of the anatase-to-rutile transformation of sol-gel-synthesized TiO2 photocatalysts. 16151–16157
Obaid M, Abdelkareem MA, Kook S, Kim HY, Hilal N, Ghaffour N, Kim IS (2020) Breakthroughs in the fabrication of electrospun-nanofiber-supported thin film composite/nanocomposite membranes for the forward osmosis process: a review. Crit Rev Environ Sci Technol 50:1727–1795. https://doi.org/10.1080/10643389.2019.1672510
Ohkawa K, Hayashi S, Nishida A, Yamamoto H, Ducreux J (2009) Preparation of pure cellulose nanofiber via electrospinning. Text Res J 79:1396–1401. https://doi.org/10.1177/0040517508101455
Ohno T, Mitsui ÃT, Matsumura M (2003) Photocatalytic activity of S-doped TiO2 photocatalyst under visible light. Chem Lett 32:0–1
Ohtani B, Iwai K, Nishimoto S, Sato S (1997) Instructions for use role of platinum deposits on titanium(IV) oxide particles: structural and kinetic analyses of photocatalytic reaction in aqueous alcohol and amino acid solutions. J Phys Chem 101:3349–3359
Pan H, Zhang YW, Shenoy VB, Gao H (2011a) Ab initio study on a novel photocatalyst: functionalized graphitic carbon nitride nanotube. ACS Catal 1:99–104. https://doi.org/10.1021/cs100045u
Pan L, Zou J, Zhang X, Wang L (2011b) Water-mediated promotion of dye sensitization of TiO2 under visible light. J Am Chem Soc 113:10000–10002. https://doi.org/10.1021/ja2035927
Panthi G, Park M, Kim H et al (2015a) Electrospun ZnO hybrid nanofibers for photodegradation of wastewater containing organic dyes: a review. J Ind Eng Chem 21:26–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jiec.2014.03.044
Panthi G, Park M, Kim HY, Park S (2015b) Electrospun polymeric nanofibers encapsulated with nanostructured materials and their applications: a review. J Ind Eng Chem 24:1–13. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jiec.2014.09.011
Park JH, Karim MR (2010) Electrospinning fabrication and characterization of poly(vinyl alcohol)/montmorillonite/silver hybrid nanofibers for antibacterial applications. Colloid Polym Sci 288:115–121. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00396-009-2147-4
Park KE, Jung SY, Lee SJ, Min BM, Park WH (2006) Biomimetic nanofibrous scaffolds: preparation and characterization of chitin/silk fibroin blend nanofibers. Int J Biol Macromol 38:165–173. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2006.03.003
Pereao OK (2017) Electrospinning: polymer nanofibre adsorbent applications for metal ion removal. J Polym Environ 25:1175–1189. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10924-016-0896-y
Raghavan P, Lim D, Ahn J et al (2012) Electrospun polymer nanofibers: the booming cutting edge technology. React Funct Polym 72:915–930. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.reactfunctpolym.2012.08.018
Safari J, Zarnegar Z, Farkhonde Masoule S, Enayati Najafabadi A (2014) Aqueous dispersions of iron oxide nanoparticles with linear-dendritic copolymers. J Ind Eng Chem 20:2389–2393. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jiec.2013.10.018
Sakthivel S, Shankar MV, Palanichamy M, Arabindoo B, Bahnemann DW, Murugesan V (2004) Enhancement of photocatalytic activity by metal deposition: characterisation and photonic efficiency of Pt, Au and Pd deposited on TiO2 catalyst. Water Res 38:3001–3008. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2004.04.046
Saloga PEJ, Ka C, Thu AF (2018) High-speed but not magic: microwave-assisted synthesis of ultra-small silver nanoparticles. Am Chem Soc 34:147–153. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.langmuir.7b01541
Samaddar P, Sik Y, Kim K et al (2018) Synthesis of nanomaterials from various wastes and their new age applications. J Clean Prod 197:1190–1209. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2018.06.262
Saravanan R, Gupta VK, Narayanan V, Stephen A (2014) Visible light degradation of textile effluent using novel catalyst ZnO/g-Mn2O3. J Taiwan Inst Chem Eng 45:1910–1917
Sasikala R, Sudarsan V, Sudakar C, Naik R, Panicker L, Bharadwaj SR (2009) Modification of the photocatalytic properties of self doped TiO2 nanoparticles for hydrogen generation using sunlight type radiation. Int J Hydrog Energy 34:6105–6113. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2009.05.131
Sclafani A, En V, No C, De Lyon EC (1996) Comparison of the photoelectronic and photocatalytic activities of various anatase and rutile forms of titania in pure liquid organic phases and in aqueous solutions. J Phys Chem 3654:13655–13661. https://doi.org/10.1021/jp9533584
Sedghi R, Reza H, Saeed S et al (2017) A one step electrospinning process for the preparation of polyaniline modified TiO2/polyacrylonitile nanocomposite with enhanced photocatalytic activity. J Alloys Compd 695:1073–1079. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jallcom.2016.10.232
Sharma V, Sharma A (2012) Nanotechnology: an emerging future trend in wastewater treatment with its innovative products and processes. Int J Enhanc Res Sci Technol Eng 2:1–8
Shen J, Hu Y, Shi M et al (2010) One step synthesis of graphene oxide-magnetic nanoparticle composite. J Phys Chem 114:1498–1503
Sivalingam G, Nagaveni K, Hegde MS, Madras G (2003) Photocatalytic degradation of various dyes by combustion synthesized nano anatase TiO2. Appl Catal B Environ 45:23–38. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0926-3373(03)00124-3
Song B, Cui W, Chang J (2011) Study on the effect of inorganic salts on the alignment of electrospun fiber. J Appl Polym Sci 122:1047–1052. https://doi.org/10.1002/app
Subramanian V, Wolf E, Kamat PV (2001) Semiconductor-metal composite nanostructures. to what extent do metal nanoparticles improve the photocatalytic activity of TiO2 films? J Phys Chem 105:11439–11446
Tahir M, Cao C, Butt FK, Idrees F, Mahmood N, Ali Z, Aslam I, Tanveer M, Rizwan M, Mahmood T (2013) Tubular graphitic-C3N4: a prospective material for energy storage and green photocatalysis. J Mater Chem A 1:13949–13955. https://doi.org/10.1039/c3ta13291a
Tian K, Liu WJ, Jiang H (2015) Comparative investigation on photoreactivity and mechanism of biogenic and chemosythetic Ag/C3N4 composites under visible light irradiation. ACS Sustain Chem Eng 3:269–276. https://doi.org/10.1021/sc500646a
Tong H, Ouyang S, Bi Y, Umezawa N, Oshikiri M, Ye J (2012) Nano-photocatalytic materials: Possibilities and challenges. Adv Mater 24:229–251. https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.201102752
Vasilaki E, Georgaki I, Vernardou D, Vamvakaki M, Katsarakis N (2015) Ag-loaded TiO2/reduced graphene oxide nanocomposites for enhanced visible-light photocatalytic activity. Appl Surf Sci 353:865–872. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apsusc.2015.07.056
Wang X, Maeda K, Chen X, Takanabe K, Domen K, Hou Y, Fu X, Antonietti M (2009a) Polymer semiconductors for artificial photosynthesis: Hydrogen evolution by mesoporous graphitic carbon nitride with visible light. J Am Chem Soc 131:1680–1681. https://doi.org/10.1021/ja809307s
Wang X, Maeda K, Thomas A, Takanabe K, Xin G, Carlsson JM, Domen K, Antonietti M (2009b) A metal-free polymeric photocatalyst for hydrogen production from water under visible light. Nat Mater 8:76–80. https://doi.org/10.1038/nmat2317
Wang Y, Huang Y, Ho W, Zhang L, Zou Z, Lee S (2009c) Biomolecule-controlled hydrothermal synthesis of C–N–S-tridoped TiO2 nanocrystalline photocatalysts for NO removal under simulated solar light irradiation. J Hazard Mater 169:77–87. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2009.03.071
Wang N, Zhu L, Deng K, She Y, Yu Y, Tang H (2010) Visible light photocatalytic reduction of Cr (VI) on TiO2 in situ modified with small molecular weight organic acids. Appl Catal B Environ 95:400–407. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apcatb.2010.01.019
Wang Z, Wang H, Liu B, Qiu W, Zhang J, Ran S, Huang H, Xu J, Han H, Chen D, Shen G (2011) Transferable and flexible nanorod-assembled TiO2 cloths for dye-sensitized solar cells, photodetectors, and photocatalysts. ACS Nano 5:8412–8419. https://doi.org/10.1021/nn203315k
Wang Y, Wang X, Antonietti M (2012) Polymeric graphitic carbon nitride as a heterogeneous organocatalyst: from photochemistry to multipurpose catalysis to sustainable chemistry. Angew Chem Int Ed 51:68–89. https://doi.org/10.1002/anie.201101182
Wang X, Liu X, Lei L et al (2014) DNA fibers by electrospinning. J Macromol Sci Part B Phys 36:169–173
Wang M, Liu Z, Fang M, Tang C, Huang Z, Liu Y', Wu X, Mao Y (2016a) Enhancement in the photocatalytic activity of TiO2 nanofibers hybridized with g-C3N4 via electrospinning. Solid State Sci 55:1–7. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solidstatesciences.2016.02.002
Wang Y, Xu Y, Wang Y, Qin H, Li X, Zuo Y, Kang S, Cui L (2016b) Synthesis of Mo-doped graphitic carbon nitride catalysts and their photocatalytic activity in the reduction of CO2 with H2O. Catal Commun 74:75–79. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.catcom.2015.10.029
Wang M, Cai L, Jin Q, Zhang H, Fang S, Qu X, Zhang Z, Zhang Q (2017) One-pot composite synthesis of three-dimensional graphene oxide/poly(vinyl alcohol)/TiO2 microspheres for organic dye removal. Sep Purif Technol 172:217–226. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seppur.2016.08.015
Wang P, Guo X, Rao L et al (2018) A weak-light-responsive TiO2/g-C3N4 composite film: photocatalytic activity under low-intensity light irradiation. Environ Sci Pollut Res 25:20206–20216. https://doi.org/10.1039/c8dt04496a
Wei Z, Liang F, Liu Y, Luo W, Wang J, Yao W, Zhu Y (2017) Photoelectrocatalytic degradation of phenol-containing wastewater by TiO2/g-C3N4 hybrid heterostructure thin film. Appl Catal B Environ 201:600–606. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apcatb.2016.09.003
Wisitsoraat A, Tuantranont A, Comini E, Sberveglieri G, Wlodarski W (2009) Characterization of n-type and p-type semiconductor gas sensors based on NiO x doped TiO2 thin films. Thin Solid Films 517:2775–2780. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tsf.2008.10.090
Wnek GE, Carr ME, Simpson DG, Bowlin GL (2003) Electrospinning of nanofiber fibrinogen structures. Nano Lett 3:213–216. https://doi.org/10.1021/nl025866c
Wu Y, Ju L (2014) Annealing-free synthesis of C A N co-doped TiO2 hierarchical spheres by using amine agents via microwave-assisted solvothermal method and their photocatalytic activities. J Alloys Compd 604:164–170. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jallcom.2014.03.023
Wu H, Lin D, Zhang R, Pan W (2007) Facile synthesis and assembly of Ag/NiO nanofibers with high electrical conductivity. Chem Mater 19:1895–1897. https://doi.org/10.1021/cm062286y
Wynkoop DE (1996) Environmental photochemistry on semiconductor surfaces: photosensitized degradation of a textile azo dye, acid orange 7, on TiO2 particles using visible light. Environ Sci Technol 30:1660–1666. https://doi.org/10.1021/es950655d
Xiao S, Shen M, Guo R, Huang Q, Wang S, Shi X (2010) Fabrication of multiwalled carbon nanotube-reinforced electrospun polymer nanofibers containing zero-valent iron nanoparticles for environmental applications. J Mater Chem 20:5700–5708. https://doi.org/10.1039/c0jm00368a
Yan SC, Li ZS, Zou ZG (2009) Photodegradation performance of g-C3N4 fabricated by directly heating melamine. Langmuir 25:10397–10401. https://doi.org/10.1021/la900923z
Yang Q, Choi H, Chen Y, Dionysiou DD (2008) Heterogeneous activation of peroxymonosulfate by supported cobalt catalysts for the degradation of 2,4-dichlorophenol in water: the effect of support, cobalt precursor, and UV radiation. Appl Catal B Environ 77:300–307. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apcatb.2007.07.020
Yang Z, Peng H, Wang W, Liu T (2010) Crystallization behavior of poly(ε-caprolactone)/layered double hydroxide nanocomposites. J Appl Polym Sci 116:2658–2667. https://doi.org/10.1002/app
Yu B, Liu Y, Jiang G, Liu D, Yu W, Chen H, Li L, Huang Q (2017) Preparation of electrospun Ag/G-C3N4 loaded composite carbon nanofibers for catalytic applications. Mater Res Express 4:1–11. https://doi.org/10.1088/2053-1591/aa52ce
Zhang J, Wu Y, Xing M, Leghari SAK, Sajjad S (2010a) Development of modified N doped TiO2 photocatalyst with metals, nonmetals and metal oxides. Energy Environ Sci 3:715–726. https://doi.org/10.1039/b927575d
Zhang L, Wong K, Yip H-Y et al (2010b) Effective photocatalytic disinfection of E. coli K-12 using AgBr-Ag-Bi2WO6 nanojunction system irradiated by visible light: the role of diffusing hydroxyl radicals. Environ Sci Technol 44:1392–1398
Zhang Z, Shao C, Li X, Wang C, Zhang M, Liu Y (2010c) ZnO heterojunctions with enhanced photocatalytic activity. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces 2:2915–2923. https://doi.org/10.1021/am100618h
Zhang L, Chen X, Guan J, Jiang Y, Hou T, Mu X (2013) Facile synthesis of phosphorus doped graphitic carbon nitride polymers with enhanced visible-light photocatalytic activity. Mater Res Bull 48:3485–3491. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.materresbull.2013.05.040
Zhang W, Zhao Z, Dong F, Zhang Y (2017a) Solvent-assisted synthesis of porous g-C3N4 with efficient visible-light photocatalytic performance for NO removal. Chin J Catal 38:372–378. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1872-2067(16)62585-8
Zhang Y, Wang T, Zhou M, Wang Y, Zhang Z (2017b) Hydrothermal preparation of Ag-TiO2 nanostructures with exposed {001}/{101} facets for enhancing visible light photocatalytic activity. Ceram Int 43:3118–3126. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ceramint.2016.11.127
Zheng Z, Huang B, Qin X, Zhang X, Dai Y (2010) Strategic synthesis of hierarchical TiO2 microspheres with enhanced photocatalytic activity. Chem Eur J 16:11266–11270. https://doi.org/10.1002/chem.201001280
Zheng Y, Liu J, Liang J, Jaroniec M, Qiao SZ (2012) Graphitic carbon nitride materials: controllable synthesis and applications in fuel cells and photocatalysis. Energy Environ Sci 5:6717–6731. https://doi.org/10.1039/c2ee03479d
Zhou X, Liu G, Fan W, Yu J (2012) Surface plasmon resonance-mediated photocatalysis by noble metal-based composites under visible light. J Mater Chem 22:21337–21354. https://doi.org/10.1039/c2jm31902k
Zhou L, Zhuang Z, Zhao H, Lin M, Zhao D, Mai L (2017) Intricate hollow structures: controlled synthesis and applications in energy storage and conversion. Adv Mater 29:1–29. https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.201602914
Zhu B, Xia P, Ho W, Yu J (2015) Isoelectric point and adsorption activity of porous g-C3N4. Appl Surf Sci 344:188–195. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apsusc.2015.03.086
Zhu B, Zhang L, Cheng B, Yu J (2018) First-principle calculation study of tri-s-triazine-based g-C3N4: a review. Appl Catal B Environ 224:983–999. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apcatb.2017.11.025
Funding
This study received financial support from the National Research Foundation, Water Research Commission and Institute for Nanotechnology and Water Sustainability (iNanoWS), University of South Africa.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
Rudzani Ratshiedana: First and soul author of the paper, drafted the paper and revised the manuscript.
Alex Tawanda Kuvarega: Edited and contributed in some section in write up.
Ajay Kumar Mishra: Project leader and edited and contributed sections of the manuscript.
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Competing interests
The authors declare that they have no competing interests.
Additional information
Responsible Editor: Sami Rtimi
Publisher’s note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Ratshiedana, R., Kuvarega, A.T. & Mishra, A.K. Titanium dioxide and graphitic carbon nitride–based nanocomposites and nanofibres for the degradation of organic pollutants in water: a review. Environ Sci Pollut Res 28, 10357–10374 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-020-11987-3
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-020-11987-3