Abstract
In the African continent, several studies have been conducted to determine PAH pollution levels with their associated health risks in the environment. However, these studies are very much disconnected. The objective of this study is to conduct a systematic review that serves as a comprehensive report on the PAH-related studies conducted in the African continent. Data sources are from Google Scholar and PubMed. English language studies that reported on PAH levels in smoked fish and meat, soils and dust, aquatic environments, indoor and outdoor air, and ready-to-eat food items were selected. Specific PAHs included the following: 33 PAHs comprising of the 16 USEPA PAHs, non-alkylated PAHs, non-alkylated PAHs, oxygenated PAHs (OPAHs), and azaarenes (AZAs). Study appraisal and synthesis methods: The Newcastle–Ottawa Scale (NOS) was adapted to assess the quality of the selected studies basing on their sampling methods, analytical techniques, and results. A total of 121 studies were reviewed, with the majority (56) being from Nigeria. PAH levels in smoked fish and meat, soils and dust, aquatic environments, indoor and outdoor air, and ready-to-eat food items recorded total concentrations of PAHs ranging from 5 to 3585 μg/kg, BDL to 6,950,000 μg/kg, 0 to 10,469,000 μg/kg, 0 to 7.82 ± 0.85 μg/m3, and 2.5 to 7889 ± 730 μg/kg respectively. Carcinogenic risk assessment for children and adults ranged from very low to very high levels when compared to the ILCR range (10−6 to 10−4) defined by the USEPA. Out of 54 African countries, only 19 were represented. The majority of selected studies failed to apply any standard protocols for sample collection and analysis. The low to very high PAH levels reported in studies calls for effective actions on environmental health. Similar systematic reviews are expected to be performed in other continents for a global assessment of PAH pollution.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Abbas AS, Brack W (2005) Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in Niger Delta soil: contamination sources and profiles. Int J Environ Sci Technol 2(4):343–352
Abdallah A (2013) Determination of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in smoked bush meat. MSc. Thesis. Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology. 12p
Abdallah MA-E, Atia NN (2014) Atmospheric concentrations, gaseous–particulate distribution, and carcinogenic potential of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in Assiut, Egypt. Environ Sci Pollut Res 21:8059–8069. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-014-2746-6
Abdul IW, Amoamah M, Abdallah A (2014) Determinants of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in smoked bushmeat. Int J Nutr Food Sci 3(1):1–6. https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ijnfs.20140301.11
Adedosu TA, Adedosu HO, Sojinu OS (2012) N-Alkanes and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) profile of soil from some polluted sites in Niger Delta, Nigeria. Environ Earth Sci 68:2139–2144. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-012-1897-3
Adedosu TA, Adeniyi OK, Adedosu HO (2015) Distribution, sources and toxicity potentials of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in soil around the vicinity of Balogun-Birro dumpsite of Oshogbo, Nigeria. Malaysian J Anal Sci 19(3):636–648
Adeniji AO, Okoh OO, Okoh AI (2018) Distribution pattern and health risk assessment of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in the water and sediment of Algoa Bay, South Africa. Environ Geochem Health 41:1303–1320. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10653-018-0213-x
Adeniji AO, Okoh OO, Okoh AI (2019) Levels of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in the water and sediment of Buffalo River Estuary, South Africa and their health risk assessment. Arch Environ Contam Toxicol 76:657–669. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00244-019-00617-w
Aderibigbe TA, Olisah C, Babatunde OS (2017) Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in some smoked foodstuffs in Lagos State, Southwest, Nigeria. Sci J Chem 5(3):31–35. https://doi.org/10.11648/j.sjc.20170503.11
Adeyemo OK, Ubiogoro OE (2012) Ecotoxicological assessment for polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon in aquatic systems of oil producing communities in Delta State, Nigeria. J Fisheries Scicom 6(1):53–62
Adeyi AA, Oyeleke P (2017) Heavy metals and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in soil from e-waste dumpsites in Lagos and Ibadan, Nigeria. J Health Pollut 15:71–84
Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR) (1995) Toxicological profile for polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. US Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry, Atlanta
Ahmed MM, Doumenq P, Awaleh MO, Syakti AD, Asia L, Chiron S (2017) Levels and sources of heavy metals and PAHs in sediment of Djibouti-city (Republic of Djibouti). Mar Pollut Bull 120:340–346
Ajiboye OO, Yakubu AF, Adams TE (2011) A review of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and heavy metal contamination of fish from fish farms. J Appl Sci Environ Manag 15(1):235–238
Akpambang VOE, Izomoh AS (2016) Levels and sources of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in urban soils of Akure, Nigeria. Chem Sci Int J 17(3):1–10. https://doi.org/10.9734/CSIJ/2016/30108
Akpambang VOE, Purcaro G, Lajide L, Amoo IA, Conte LS et al (2009) Determination of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in commonly consumed Nigerian smoked/grilled fish and meat. Food Addit Contam 26(07):1096–1103. https://doi.org/10.1080/02652030902855406
Akpambang VOE, Purcaro G, Lajide L, Amoo IA, Conte LS, Moret S (2015) Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in some Nigerian roasted plant foods. Front Food Nutr Res 1(1):1–5
Amoako J, Ansa-Asare DO, Karikari AY, Dartey G (2010) Levels of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in the Densu River Basin of Ghana. Environ Monit Assess 174:471–480. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-010-1471-y
Amuda OS, Adelowo-Imeokparia FE (2006) Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in municipal waste ashes from three waste dumps in Lagos, Nigeria. Bull Chem Soc Ethiop 21(1):141–144
Ana GREE, Sridhar MKC, Emerole GO (2009) A comparative assessment of soil pollution by polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in two Niger Delta communities, Nigeria. Afr J Pure Appl Chem 3(3):031–041
Anietie ME, Godwin EV (2015) Risk assessment of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in soils and tubers crops collected from Ikot Oborenyin, South-south Nigeria. Int Res J Pure Appl Chem 10(2):1–13. https://doi.org/10.9734/IRJPAC/2016/20154
Arinaitwe K, Kiremire BT, Muir DCG, Fellin P, Li H, Teixeira C, Mubiru DN (2012) Atmospheric concentrations of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in the watershed of Lake Victoria, East Africa. Environ Sci Technol 46:11524–11531. https://doi.org/10.1021/es302238w
Asagbra MC, Adebayo AS, Anumudu CI, Ugwumba OA, Ugwumba AAA (2015) Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in water, sediment and fish from the Warri River at Ubeji, Niger Delta, Nigeria. Afr J Aquat Sci. https://doi.org/10.2989/16085914.2015.1035223
Bandowe BAM, Nkansah MA (2016) Occurrence, distribution and health risk from polycyclic aromatic compounds (PAHs, Oxygenated-PAHs and Azaarenes) in street dust from a major West African Metropolis. Sci Total Environ 553:439–449. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2016.02.142
Bandowe BAM, Bigalke M, Boamah L, Nyarko E, Saalia FK, Wolfgang W (2014) Polycyclic aromatic compounds (PAHs and oxygenated PAHs) and trace metals in fish species from Ghana (West Africa): bioaccumulation and health risk assessment. Environ Int 65:135–146. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2013.12.018
Barakat AO, Mostafa A, Wade TL, Sweet ST, El Sayed NB (2011) Distribution and characteristics of PAHs in sediments from the Mediterranean coastal environment of Egypt. Mar Pollut Bull 62:1969–1978. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2011.06.024
Barhoumi B, LeMenach K, Devier M-H, Ameur WB, Etcheber H, Budzinski H, Cachot J, Driss MR (2014) Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in surface sediments from the Bizerte Lagoon, Tunisia: levels, sources, and toxicological significance. Environ Monit Assess 186:2653–2669. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-013-3569-5
Barhoumi B, Castro-Jimenez J, Guigue C, Goutx M, Sempere R, Derouiche A, Achour A, Touil S (2018) Levels and risk assessment of hydrocarbons and organochlorines in aerosols from a North African coastal city (Bizerte, Tunisia). Environ Pollut 240:422–431. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2018.04.109
Benson NU, Essien JP, Asuquo FE, Eritobor AL (2014) Occurrence and distribution of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in surface microlayer and subsurface seawater of Lagos Lagoon, Nigeria. Environ Monit Assess 186:5519–5529. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-014-3800-z
Benson NU, Fred-Ahmadua OH, Olugbuyirob JAO, Anakea WA, Adedapoa AE, Olajirec AA (2017) Concentrations, sources and risk characterisation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in green, herbal and black tea products in Nigeria. J Food Compos Anal 66:13–22
Błaszczyk E, Rogula-Kozłowska W, Klejnowski K, Fulara I, Mielżyńska-Švach D (2016) Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons bound to outdoor and indoor airborne particles (PM2.5) and their mutagenicity and carcinogenicity in Silesian kindergartens, Poland. Air Quality. Atmos Health 10:389–400. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11869-016-0457-5
Bortey-Sam N (2011) Distribution of PAHs in the air and surface soils: case study Kumasi, Ghana. MSc. Thesis. Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology
Bortey-Sam N, Ikenaka Y, Nakayama SMM, Akoto O, Yohannes YB, Baidoo E, Mizukawa H, Ishizuka M (2014) Occurrence, distribution, sources and toxic potential of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in surface soils from the Kumasi Metropolis, Ghana. Sci Total Environ 496:471–478
Botwe BO (2018) Sediments in the Tema Harbour (Ghana): chemical pollution and sedimentation rates. CRC Press, Balkema. https://doi.org/10.18174/443802
Camacho M, Boada LD, Orós J, López P, Zumbado M, Almeida-González M, Luzardo OP (2014) Monitoring organic and inorganic pollutants in juvenile live sea turtles: results from a study of Chelonia mydas and Eretmochelys imbricata in Cape Verde. Sci Total Environ 481:303–310. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2014.02.051
Charles IA, Ogbolosingha AJ, Afia IU (2017) Health risk assessment of instant noodles commonly consumed in Port Harcourt, Nigeria. Environ Sci Pollut Res 25:2580–2587. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-017-0583-0
Chen C, Xia Z, Wu M, Zhang Q, Wang T, Wang L, Yang H (2017) Concentrations, source identification, and lung cancer risk associated with springtime pm2.5-bound polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in Nanjing, China. Arch Environ Contam Toxicol. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00244-017-0435-4
Chukwumalume R-M (2016) Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and organochlorine pesticide residues in selected marine fish species along the coast of South Africa. PhD Thesis. Stellenbosch University. 41p
Darwish WS, Chiba H, El-Ghareeb WR, Elhelaly AE, Hui S-P (2019) Determination of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon content in heat-treated meat retailed in Egypt: health risk assessment, benzo[a]pyrene induced mutagenicity and oxidative stress in human colon (CaCo-2) cells and protection using rosmarinic and ascorbic acids. Food Chem 290:114–124. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2019.03.127
Davies OA, Abolude DS (2016) Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) of surface water from Oburun Lake, Niger Delta, Nigeria. App Sci Report 13(1):20–24. https://doi.org/10.15192/PSCP.ASR.2016.13.1.2024
Dosunmu MI, Oyo-Ita IO, Oyo-Ita OE (2016) Risk assessment of human exposure to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons via shrimp (Macrobrachium felicinum) consumption along the Imo River catchments, SE Nigeria. Environ Geochem Health 38:1333–1345. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10653-016-9799-z
Edokpayi JN, Odiyo JO, Popoola OE, Msagati TAM (2016) Determination and distribution of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in rivers, sediments and wastewater effluents in Vhembe District, South Africa. Int J Environ Res Public Health 13:387. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph13040387
Effiong IA, Bassey FI, Iwegbue CMA, Ekpa OD, Williams SA, Oguntunde FC, Osabor VN, Martincigh BS (2016) Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in three commercially available fish species from the Bonny and Cross River estuaries in the Niger Delta, Nigeria. Environ Monit Assess 188:508. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-016-5479-9
Ekanem A, Osabor VN, Ekpo B (2019) Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) contamination of soils and water around automobile repair workshops in Eket metropolis, Akwa Ibom State, Nigeria. SN Appl Sci 1(447). https://doi.org/10.1007/s42452-019-0397-4
Ekpo BO, Oyo-Ita OE, Oros DR, Simoneit BRT (2011) Distributions and sources of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in surface sediments from the Cross River estuary, S.E. Niger Delta, Nigeria. Environ Monit Assess 184:1037–1047. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-011-2019-5
Ekpo BO, Oyo-Ita OE, Offem JO, Adie PA (2012) Anthropogenic PAHs in sediment-dwelling biota from mangrove areas of the Calabar River, SE Niger Delta, Nigeria. Environ Nat Resour Res 2(4). https://doi.org/10.5539/enrr.v2n4p89
El-Kady AA, Wade TL, Sweet ST (2018) Assessment and ecological indicators of total and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in the aquatic environment of lake Manzala, Egypt. J Environ Sci Health A 53(9):854–865. https://doi.org/10.1080/10934529.2018.1455376
Essumang DK (2010) Distribution, levels, and risk assessment of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in some water bodies along the coastal belt of Ghana. Sci World J 10:972–985. https://doi.org/10.1100/tsw.2010.96
Essumang DK, Dodoo DK, Obiri S, Oduro AK (2006) Analysis of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in street soil dust in Kumasi Metropolis of Ghana. Environ Monit Assess 121:401–408. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-005-9137-x
Essumang DK, Ofori J, Dodoo DK, Adjei JK (2014) Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in settled dust particles in selected Ghanaian environments: levels, source characterization, and assessment of inhalational health risks. Indoor Built Environ 25(1):242–253. https://doi.org/10.1177/1420326X14544530
Essumang DK, Antwi-Adjei R, Adjei J, Akwansah EG, Dodoo DK (2018) Seasonal variation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) contamination in Crassostrea tulipa (oysters) and sediments in three Ghanaian coastal ecosystems. Res J Environ Sci 12:63–72. https://doi.org/10.3923/rjes.2018.63.72
European Commission (2006) Commission regulation (EC) No. 1881/2006 setting maximum levels for certain contaminants in foodstuffs. http://eurlex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/site/en/oj/2006/l_364/l_36420061220en00050024.pdf Accessed 23 April, 2020.
European Food Safety Authority (2008) Scientific Opinion of the Panel on Contaminants in the Food Chain on a request from the European Commission on Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons in Food. EFSA J 724:1–114
Ezike CO, Ohen JN (2018) Assessment of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in hardwood and softwood - smoked fish. Int J Anim Sci 2(1):1012
Ezike CO, Ohen JN, Echor FO, Felix O (2018) Assessment of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in hardwood, palmwood and softwood - smoked fish. Int J Ecotoxicol Ecobiol 2(4):178–181. https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ijee.20170204.17
Fagbote EO, Olanipekun EO (2010) Levels of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and polychlorinated biphenyls in sediment of bitumen deposit impacted area. Int J Environ Sci Technol 7(3):561–557
Fourati R, Tedetti M, Guigue C, Goutx M, Zaghden H, Sayadi S, Elleuch B (2017) Natural and anthropogenic particulate-bound aliphatic and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in surface waters of the Gulf of Gabès (Tunisia, southern Mediterranean Sea). Environ Sci Pollut Res 25:2476–2494. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-017-0641-7
Gaspare L, Machiwa JF, Mdachi SJM, Streck G, Brack W (2008) Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) contamination of surface sediments and oysters from the inter-tidal areas of Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. Environ Pollut 157:24–34. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2008.08.002
Gdara I, Zrafi I, Balducci C, Cecinato A, Ghrabi A (2017) Seasonal distribution, source identification, and toxicological risk assessment of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in sediments from Wadi El Bey Watershed in Tunisia. Arch Environ Contam Toxicol 73:488–510. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00244-017-0440-7
German Federal Environment Agency (2012) Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons: Harmful to the environment! Toxic! Inevitable? Https://www.umweltbundesamt.de
Ghana Ports and Harbours Authority (2008) Port of Tema, www.ghanaports.gov.gh/GPHA/tema/. Accessed 16 April, 2019
Giglio L, van der Werf GR, Randerson JT, Collatz GJ, Kasibhatla PS (2006) Global estimation of burned area using MODIS active fire observations. Atmos Chem Phys 6:957–974
Giuliana S, Piazza R, Moumni BE, Polo FP, Vecchiato M, Romano S, Zambon S, Frignani M, Bellucci LG (2015) Recognizing different impacts of human and natural sources on the spatial distribution and temporal trends of PAHs and PCBs (including PCB-11) in sediments of the Nador Lagoon (Morocco). Sci Total Environ 526:346–357. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2015.04.057
Gnandi K, Bandowe BAM, Deheyn DD, Porrachia M, Kersten M, Wilcke W (2011) Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and trace metal contamination of coastal sediment and biota from Togo. J Environ Monit 22:1–10. https://doi.org/10.1039/c1em10063g
Gorleku MA, Carboo D, Palm LMN, Quasie WJ, Armah A (2014) Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) pollution in marine waters and sediments at the Tema Harbour, Ghana. Academia. J Environ Sci 2(7):108–115. https://doi.org/10.15413/ajes.2014.0112
Haddaoui I, Mahjoub O, Mahjoub B, Boujelben A (2015) Occurrence and distribution of PAHs, PCBs, and chlorinated pesticides in Tunisian soil irrigated with treated wastewater. Chemosphere 146:195–205. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2015.12.007
Hafez NE, Awad AM, Ibrahim SM, Mohamed HR (2017) Safety assessment of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in cold smoked fish (Mugil cephalus) Using GC-MS. J Food Process Technol 8:688. https://doi.org/10.4172/2157-7110.1000688
Haiba NS, Hassan IA (2016) Monitoring and assessment of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in the atmosphere of Alexandria City. Egypt Polycyclic Aromatic Compounds. https://doi.org/10.1080/10406638.2016.1200102
Hassanien MA, Abdel-Latif NM (2011) Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in road dust over Greater Cairo, Egypt. J Hazard Mater 151:247–254. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2007.05.079
Hassine SB, Hammami B, Ameur WB, Megdiche YE, Barhoumi B, Driss MR (2014) Particulate polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) in the atmosphere of Bizerte City, Tunisia. Bull Environ Contam Toxicol 93:375–382. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00128-014-1303-9
Havelcová M, Melegy A, Rapant S (2013) Geochemical distribution of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in soils and sediments of El-Tabbin, Egypt. Chemosphere 9:63–74. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2013.08.018
Ikue GS, Monanu MO, Onuah CL (2016) Bioaccumulation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in tissues (gills and muscles) of (Catfish) Chrysichthys nigrodidatatus from crude oil polluted water of Ogoniland, River State, Nigeria. J Appl Life Sci Int 6(3):1–6. https://doi.org/10.9734/JALSI/2016/27248
Inam E, Offiong N-A, Essien J, Kang S, KangS-Y AB (2015) Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons loads and potential risks in freshwater ecosystem of the Ikpa River Basin, Niger Delta—Nigeria. Environ Monit Assess 188:49. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-015-5038-9
Inam E, Etuk I, Offiong NA, Kim K-W, Kang SW, Essien J (2018) Distribution and ecological risks of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in sediments of different tropical water ecosystems in Niger Delta, Nigeria. Environ Earth Sci 77:216. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-018-7396-4
Ipeaiyeda AR, Nwauzor GO, Akporido SO (2015) Biodegradation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in agricultural soil contaminated with crude oil from Nigeria Refinery using Pleurotus sajor-caju. J Bioremed Biodegrad 6:4. https://doi.org/10.4172/2155-6199.1000301
Iwegbue CMA (2014) Concentrations and hazards of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in hawked baked ready-to-eat foods in Nigeria. Acta Aliment 45(2):175–181. https://doi.org/10.1556/AAlim.2015.0004
Iwegbue CMA, Obi G (2016) Distribution, sources, and health risk assessment of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in dust from urban environment in the Niger Delta, Nigeria. Human Ecol Risk Assess 22(3):623–638. https://doi.org/10.1080/10807039.2015.1100157
Iwegbue CMA, Obi G, Aganbi E, Ogala JE, Omo-Irabor OO, Martincigh BS (2016) Concentrations and health risk assessment of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in soils of an urban environment in the Niger Delta. Nigeria Toxicol Environ Health Sci 8(3):221–233. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13530-016-0279-8
Iwegbue CMA, Iteku-Atata E-O C, Odali EW, Egobueze FE, Tesi GO, Nwajei GE, Martincigh BS (2018) Distribution, sources and health risks of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in household dusts from rural, semi-urban and urban areas in the Niger Delta, Nigeria. Expos Health. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12403-018-0276-z
Kalisa E, Nagato EG, Biziru E, Lee KC, Tang N, Pointing SB, Hayakawa K, Archer SDJ, Lacap-Bugler DC (2018) Characterization and risk assessment of atmospheric PM2.5 and PM10 particulate-bound PAHs and NPAHs in Rwanda, Central-East Africa. Environ Sci Technol 52:12179–12187. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.8b03219
Kerebba N, Ssebugere P, Kwetegyeka J, Arinaitwe K, Wasswa J (2017) Concentrations and sources apportionment of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in sediments from the Uganda side of Lake Victoria. Environ Sci: Process Impact. https://doi.org/10.1039/C7EM00017K
Khedidji S, Ladji R, Yassaa N (2013) A wintertime study of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in indoor and outdoor air in a big student residence in Algiers, Algeria. Environ Sci Pollut Res 20:4906–4919. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-012-1430-y
Kiriago AN, Bwisa HM (2013) Working environment factors that affect quality of work life among attendants in petrol stations in Kitale Town in Kenya. Int J Acad Res Bus Soc Sci 3(5):2222–6990
Kouakou R, Kouassi AM, Kouassi Kwa-Koffi E, Gnonsoro UP, Trokourey A (2015) Distribution of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in a tropical coastal lagoon (Grand-Lahou lagoon, Côte d’Ivoire). Int J Biol Chem Sci 9(2):1120–1129. https://doi.org/10.4314/ijbcs.v9i2.47
Kwach BO, Lalah JO (2009) High concentrations of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons found in water and sediments of Car Wash and Kisat Areas of Winam Gulf, Lake Victoria-Kenya. Bull Environ Contam Toxicol 83:727–733. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00128-009-9859-5
Ladji R, Yassaa N, Balducci C, Cecinato A (2013) Particle size distribution of n-alkanes and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHS) in urban and industrial aerosol of Algiers, Algeria. Environ Sci Pollut Res 21:1819–1832. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-013-2074-2
Law JR, Kelly C, Baker K, Jones J, McIntosh AD, Moffat CF (2002) Toxic equivalency factors for PAH and their applicability in shellfish pollution monitoring studies. J Environ Monit 4(3):383–388
Mahugija JAM (2015) Levels and profiles of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and polychlorinated biphenyls in soil at an industrial area in Dar Es Salaam, Tanzania. BEST: Intl J Human Arts, Med Sci 3(6):1–8
Manda P, Dano DS, Ehile ES, Koffi M, Amani N, Assi YA (2012) Evaluation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) content in foods sold in Abobo market, Abidjan, Côte d’Ivoire. J Toxicol Environ Health Sci 4(6):99–105. https://doi.org/10.5897/JTEHS11.085
Mekonnen KN, Chandravanshi BS, Redi-Abshiro M, Ambushe AA, McCrindle RI, Moyo S (2015) Distribution of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in sediments of Akaki River, Lake Awassa, and Lake Ziway, Ethiopia. Environ Monit Assess 187:474. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-015-4669-1
Mobegi EK, Nyambaka HN, Nawiri MP (2016) Physico-chemical characteristics and levels of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in untreated water from Ngong River, Kenya. J Pollut Eff Cont 4:2. https://doi.org/10.4172/2375-4397.1000163
Mohammed Z, Akan JC, Bukar LI, Idi AM (2017) Cancer and non-cancer risk associated with PAHs exposure from consumption of fish from Komadugu River Basin, Yobe State, Nigeria. J Aquat Pollut Toxicol 1(3):17
Moher D, Liberati A, Tetzlaff J, Altman DG, PRISMA Group (2009) Preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses: the PRISMA statement. J Clin Epidemiol 62:1006–1012
Muendo M, Hanai Y, Kameda Y, Masunaga S (2006) Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in urban air: concentration levels, patterns, and source analysis in Nairobi, Kenya. Environ Forensic 7(2):147–157. https://doi.org/10.1080/15275920600667112
Mungai TM, Yan X, Makokha VA, Githaiga KB, Wang J (2018) Concentrations, source identification and eco-toxicological risk of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in agricultural soils of Kenya, Eastern Africa. Int J Environ Sci Technol. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13762-018-2014-2
Munyeza CF, Osano AM, Maghanga JK, Forbes PBC (2019) Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon gaseous emissions from household cooking devices: a Kenyan case study. Environ Toxicol Chem:1–10. https://doi.org/10.1002/etc.4648
Nduka JK, Anyakora C, Obi E, Obumselu FO, Ezenwa JE, Ngozi-Olehi LC (2013) Polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and inorganic chemical contaminants at refuse dumpsites in Awka, South Eastern Nigeria: a public health implication. J Sci Res Reports 2(1):173–189
Nekhavhambe TJ, van Ree T, Fatoki OS (2014) Determination and distribution of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in rivers, surface runoff, and sediments in and around Thohoyandou, Limpopo Province, South Africa. African J Online 40(3). https://doi.org/10.4314/wsa.v40i3.4
Net S, Henry F, Rabodonirina S, Diop M, Merhaby D, Mahfouz C, Amara R, Ouddane B (2015) Accumulation of PAHs, Me-PAHs, PCBs and total mercury in sediments and marine species in coastal areas of Dakar, Senegal: Contamination level and impact. Int J Environ Res 9(2):419–432
Nganje TN, Edet AE, Ibok UJ, Ukpabio EJ, Ibe KA, Neji P (2011) Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in surface water and soil in the vicinity of fuel-oil spillage from a tank farm distribution facility, Esuk Utan, Calabar Municipality, Nigeria. Environ Earth Sci 67:81–90. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-011-1481-2
Nganje TN, Neji PA, Ibe KA, Adamu CI, Edet A (2014) Fate, distribution and sources of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in contaminated soils in parts of Calabar Metropolis, South Eastern Nigeria. J Appl Sci Environ Manag 18(2):309–316. https://doi.org/10.4314/jasem.v18i2.23
Nieuwoudt C, Pieters R, Quinn LP, Kylin H, Borgen AR, Bouwman H (2011) Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in soil and sediment from industrial, residential, and agricultural areas in Central South Africa: an initial assessment. Soil Sediment Contam 20:188–204. https://doi.org/10.1080/15320383.2011.546443
Nkansah MA (2012) Environmental remediation: removal of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. PhD Thesis. University of Bergen. 2p
Nwaichi EO, Ntorgbo SA (2016) Assessment of PAHs levels in some fish and seafood from different coastal waters in the Niger Delta. Toxicol Rep. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.toxrep.2016.01.005
Nwaichi EO, Wegwu MO, Nwosu UL (2014) Distribution of selected carcinogenic hydrocarbon and heavy metals in an oil-polluted agriculture zone. Environ Monit Assess 186:8697–8706. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-014-4037-6
Nwaichi EO, Chuku LC, Ighoavwogan E (2016) Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and selected heavy metals in some oil polluted sites in Delta State Nigeria. J Environ Prot 7:1389–1410. https://doi.org/10.4236/jep.2016.710120
Nwineewii JD, Marcus AC (2015) Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in surface water and their toxicological effects in some creeks of South East Rivers State (Niger Delta) Nigeria. IOSJ Environ Sci Toxicol Food Technol 9(12):27–30
Nyarko E, Botwe BO, Klubi E (2011) Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) levels in two commercially important fish species from the coastal waters of Ghana and their carcinogenic health risks. West African J Appl Ecol 19
Obanya HE, Omoarukhe A, Amaeze NH, Okoroafor CU (2019) Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in Ologe lagoon and effects of Benzo[b]fluoranthene in African Catfish. J Health Pollut 22:190605
Obiri S, Cobbina SJ, Armah FA (2011) Naangmenyele Z (2011) Quantification and characterization of vehicle-based polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in street dust from the Tamale metropolis, Ghana. Environ Sci Pollut Res 18:1166–1173. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-011-0465-9
Ogoko EC (2014) Evaluation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, total petroleum hydrocarbons and some heavy metals in soils of Nnpc Oil Depot Aba Metropolis, Abia State, Nigeria. IOSJ Environ Sci Toxicol Food Technol 8(5):21–27
Okpashi VE, Ogugua VN, Ubani SC, Ujah II, Oziok JN (2017) Estimation of residual polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons concentration in fish species: Implication in reciprocal corollary. Cogent Environ Sci 3:1303979. https://doi.org/10.1080/23311843.2017.1303979
Olabemiwo OM, Tella AC, Omodara NB, Esan AO, Oladapo A (2013) Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in three local snacks in Ogbomoso. American Journal of Food and Nutrition. ISSN 2157-1317. https://doi.org/10.5251/ajfn.2013.3.2.90.97
Olawoyin R, Grayson RL, Okareh OT (2012) Eco-toxicological and epidemiological assessment of human exposure to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in the Niger Delta, Nigeria. Toxicol Environ Heal Sci 4(3):173–185. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13530-012-0133-6
Olayinka OO, Adewusi AA, Olujimi OO, Aladesida AA (2018) Concentration of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and estimated human health risk of water samples around Atlas Cove, Lagos, Nigeria. J Health Pollut 8(20):181210
Olayinka OO, Adewusi AA, Olujimi OO, Aladesida AA (2019) Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in sediment and health risk of fish, crab and shrimp around Atlas Cove, Nigeria. J Health Pollut 24:191204
Omar WA-M, Mahmoud HM (2016) Risk assessment of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in River Nile up- and downstream of a densely populated area. J Environ Sci Health Part A 52(2):166–173. https://doi.org/10.1080/10934529.2016.1240488
Ongwech A, Nyakairu GW, Mbabazi J, Kwetegyeka J, Masette M (2013) Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in smoked Lates niloticus from selected markets, Gulu District, Uganda. Afr J Pure Appl Chem 7(4):164–172. https://doi.org/10.5897/AJPAC2013.0492
Onyango AA, Lalah JO, Wandiga SO, Gichuki J (2012) Assessment of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in Lates niloticus, Oreochromis niloticus and Rastrineobola argentea as sources of human exposure in Kisumu Bay, Winam Gulf of Lake Victoria. Bull Environ Contam Toxicol 88:747–751. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00128-012-0567-1
Onyemaechi EC, Ndudi OJ, Okaliwe EF (2017) Assessment of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in hardwood, palmwood and softwood - smoked fish. Int J Ecotoxicol Ecobiol 2(4):178–181. https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ijee.20170204.17
Osuji LC, Ilechukwu IP, Onyema MO (2012) Distribution and sources of aliphatic hydrocarbons (AHCs) and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) within the vicinity of a hot mix asphalt (HMA) plant in Port Harcourt, Nigeria. Int J Environ Sci 3(1)
Owor OR, Nyakairu GWA, Mbabazi J, Kwetegyeka J (2012) Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in roasted pork, Kampala, Uganda. Int J Curr Res 4(8):42–48
Oyekunle JAO, Yussuf NA, Durodola SS, Adekunle AS, Adenuga AA, Ayinuola O, Ogunfowokan AO (2019) Determination of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and potentially toxic metals in commonly consumed beef sausage roll products in Nigeria. Heliyon 5:e02345. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2019.e02345
Oyibo JN, Wegwu MO, Uwakwe AA, Osuoha JO (2017) Analysis of total petroleum hydrocarbons, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and risk assessment of heavy metals in some selected finfishes at Forcados Terminal, Delta State, Nigeria. Environ Nanotechnol Monitor Manag 9:128–135. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enmm.2017.11.002
Oyo-Ita OE, Offem JO, Ekpo BO, Adie PA (2012) Anthropogenic PAHs in mangrove sediments of the Calabar River, SE Niger Delta, Nigeria. Appl Geochem 28:212–219. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apgeochem.2012.09.011
Palm LMN, Carboo D, Yeboah PO, Quasie WJ, Gorleku MA, Darko A (2011) Characterization of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) present in smoked fish from Ghana. Adv J Food Sci Technol 3(5):332–338
Pheiffer W, Pieters R, Genthe B, Quinn L, Bouwman H, Smit N (2016) Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in the aquatic ecosystems of Soweto/Lenasia. Water Research Commission, Private Bag X03 Gezina, 00310020
Phillips DH (1999) Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in the diet. Mutat Res Genet Toxicol Environ Mutagen 443:139–147
Prasse C, Zech W, Itanna F, Glaser B (2012) Contamination and source assessment of metals, polychlorinated biphenyls, and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in urban soils from Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Toxicol Environ Chem 94(10):1954–1979. https://doi.org/10.1080/02772248.2012.737794
Rabhi L, Lemou A, Cecinato A, Balducci C, Cherifi N, Ladji R, Yassaa N (2018) Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, phthalates, parabens and other environmental contaminants in dust and suspended particulates of Algiers, Algeria. Environ Sci Pollut Res 25:24253–24265. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-018-2496-y
Rimayi C, Chimuka L (2019) Organ-specific bioaccumulation of PCBs and PAHs in African sharptooth catfish (Clarias gariepinus) and common carp (Cyprinus carpio) from the Hartbeespoort Dam, South Africa. Environ Monit Assess 191:700. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-019-7912-3
Rimayi C, Chimuka L, Odusanya D, de Boer J, Weiss JM (2017) Source characterisation and distribution of selected PCBs, PAHs and alkyl PAHs in sediments from the Klip and Jukskei Rivers, South Africa. Environ Monit Assess 189:327. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-017-6043-y
Rumney HS, Laruelle F, Potter K, Mellor PK, Law RJ (2011) Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in commercial fish and lobsters from the coastal waters of Madagascar following an oil spill in August 2009. Mar Pollut Bull 62:2859–2862. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2011.09.019
Rumney HS, Potter K, Mellor PK, Brant J, Whomersley P, Shaw S, Barry J, Kirby MF, Law RJ (2014) Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in fish from St Helena, South Atlantic, in relation to an historic wreck. Mar Pollut Bull 89:451–454. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2014.09.047
Safo-Adu G, Ofosu FG, Carboo D, Serfor-Armah Y (2014) Health risk assessment of exposure to particulate polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons at a Tollbooth on a Major Highway. Am J Sci Ind Res 5(4):110–119
Salaudeen IA, Sonibare OO, Sojinu S, Ekundayo O (2017) Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in air from industrial areas in Lagos and Ogun states, Nigeria. Pollution 3(4):561–573. https://doi.org/10.22059/POLL.2017.62773
Semlali A, Chafik A, Talbi M, Budzinski H (2012) Origin and distribution of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in lagoon ecosystems of Morocco. Open Environ Pollut Toxicol J 3:37–46
Silva BO, Adetunde OT, Oluseyi TO, Olayinka KO, Alo BI (2011) Effects of the methods of smoking on the levels of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in some locally consumed fishes in Nigeria. Afr J Food Sci 5(7):384–391
Situma DS (2010) Assessment of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in air and soil from selected sites in Nairobi. MSc. Thesis. University of Nairobi, Department of Chemistry. 67p
Sogbanmu TO, Nagy E, Phillips DH, Arlt VM, Otitoloju AA, Bury NR (2016) Lagos lagoon sediment organic extracts and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons induce embryotoxic, teratogenic and genotoxic effects in Danio rerio (zebrafish) embryos. Environ Sci Pollut Res 23:14489–14501. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-016-6490-y
Sojinu OSS, Wang JZ, Sonibare OO, Zeng EY (2010) Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in sediments and soils from oil exploration areas of the Niger Delta, Nigeria. J Hazard Mater 174:641–647. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2009.09.099
Stogiannidis E, Laane R (2015) Source characterization of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons by using their molecular indices: an overview of possibilities. Rev Environ Contam Toxicol 234. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-10638-0_2
Tay CK, Biney CA (2013) Levels and sources of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in selected irrigated urban agricultural soils in Accra, Ghana. Environ Earth Sci 68:1773–1782. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-012-1867-9
Tesi GO, Iwegbue CMA, Emuh FN, Nwajei GE (2016) Lagdo dam flood disaster of 2012: an assessment of the concentrations, sources, and risks of PAHs in floodplain soils of the lower reaches of River Niger, Nigeria. J Environ Qual 45:305–314. https://doi.org/10.2134/jeq2015.02.0116
Titcombe ME, Simcik M (2011) Personal and indoor exposure to PM2.5 and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in the southern highlands of Tanzania: a pilot-scale study. Environ Monit Assess 180:461–476. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-010-1799-3
Tongo I, Ezemonye L, Akpeh K (2017a) Distribution, characterization, and human health risk assessment of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in Ovia River, Southern Nigeria. Environ Monit Assess 189:247. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-017-5931-5
Tongo I, Ogbeide O, Ezemonye L (2017b) Human health risk assessment of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in smoked fish species from markets in Southern Nigeria. Toxicol Rep 4:55–61
U·S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) (1991) Risk assessment guidance for superfund. Volume I — human health evaluation manual (Part B, Development of Risk-based Preliminary Remediation Goals) EPA/540/R-92/003. Office of Research and Development, Washington, DC 20460
U·S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) (2001) Supplemental guidance for developing soil screening levels for superfund sites 93554–24. Washington, D.C: Office of Emergency and Remedial Response
U·S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) (2012) Regional screening levels for chemical contaminants at superfund sites. U·S. Environmental Protection Agency (http://www.epa.gov/reg3hwmd/risk/human/rb-concentration_table/usersguide.htm. Accessed on 20 April, 2020
Udowelle NA, Igweze ZN (2017) Health risk assessment and dietary exposure to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), lead and cadmium from bread consumed in Nigeria. Rocz Panstw Zakl Hig 68(3):269–280
Ugwu KE, Ukoha PO (2017) Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in surface sediments near a mining site in Okobo-Enjema, Nigeria: concentrations, source apportionment and risk assessment. Environ Geochem Health 40:359–373. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10653-017-9916-7
Wells G, Shea B, O’Connell D, Peterson J, Welch V, Losos M, et al. (2009) The Newcastle–Ottawa Scale (NOS) for assessing the quality of nonrandomized studies in meta-analyses. Http://www.ohri.ca/programs/clinical_epidemiology/oxford.htm. Accessed 25 April, 2020
Wim V, Issabelle SK, Stefan DH, John VC (2007) Consumer perception versus scientific evidence of farmed and wild fish: exploratory insights for Belgium. Aquac Int 15:121–136
Woodard E, Suzanne MS (2010) Cornell university program on breast cancer and environmental risk factors. Cornell University, College of Veterinary Medicine, Vet Box 31, Ithaca, pp 14853–16401
World Health Organization (2010) WHO guidelines for indoor air quality: selected pollutants. WHO Regional Office for Europe Scherfigsvej 8 DK-2100 Copenhagen Ø, Denmark
Yang Q, Chen H, Li B (2015) Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in indoor dusts of Guizhou, southwest of China: Status, sources and potential human health risk. PLoS One 10(2):e0118141. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0118141
Yolande AA, Axel S, N’Guessan A, Serge O, Patrice K, Bassirou B, Marius BGH (2014) Description of risk factors in the formation of hydrocarbons during the traditional fish smoking in Abidjan. J Health Sci 2:222–234
Yusuf KA, Ezechukwu LN, Fakoya KA, Akintola SL, Abgoola JI, Omoleye TO (2015) Influence of fish smoking methods on polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons contents and possible risks to human health. Afr J Food Sci 9(3):126–135
Zaghden H, Tedetti M, Sayadi S, Serbaji MM, Elleuch B, Saliot A (2017) Origin and distribution of hydrocarbons and organic matter in the surficial sediments of the Sfax-Kerkennah channel (Tunisia, Southern Mediterranean Sea). Mar Pollut Bull 117:414–428. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2017.02.007
Zelinkova Z, Wenzl T (2015) The occurrence of 16 EPA PAHs in food – a review, polycyclic aromatic compounds. Polycycl Aromat Compd 35(2-4):248–284. https://doi.org/10.1080/10406638.2014.918550
Zhang Y, Tao S (2009) Global atmospheric emission inventory of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) for 2004. Atmos Environ 43:812–819
Acknowledgements
The researchers wish to extend their gratitude to Professor Thomas Gaiser of the University of Bonn for providing assistance in the search for literature. Much gratitude also goes to Miss Sharon Nunoo of the University of Manchester for spending her precious time to review this paper.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of interest
The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.
Ethical approval
This article does not contain any studies with human participants or animals performed by any of the authors.
Additional information
Responsible Editor: Philippe Garrigues
Publisher’s note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Ofori, S.A., Cobbina, S.J. & Doke, D.A. The occurrence and levels of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in African environments—a systematic review. Environ Sci Pollut Res 27, 32389–32431 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-020-09428-2
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-020-09428-2