Skip to main content

Advertisement

Log in

Elevated exposure to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) may trigger cancers in Pakistan: an environmental, occupational, and genetic perspective

  • Review Article
  • Published:
Environmental Science and Pollution Research Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are carcinogenic compounds which are emitted through incomplete combustion of organic materials, fossil fuels, consumption of processed meat, smoked food, and from various industrial activities. High molecular mass and mobility make PAHs widespread and lethal for human health. A cellular system in human detoxifies these toxicants through specialized enzymatic machinery called xenobiotic-metabolizing (CYP450) and phase-II (GSTs) enzymes (XMEs). These metabolizing enzymes include cytochromes P450 family (CYP1, CYP2), glutathione s-transferases, and ALDHs. Gene polymorphisms in XMEs encoding genes can compromise their metabolizing capacity to detoxify ingested carcinogens (PAHs etc.) that may lead to prolong and elevated exposure to ingested toxicants and may consequently lead to cancer. Moreover, PAHs can induce cancer through reprograming XMEs’ gene functions by altering their epigenetic markers. This review article discusses possible interplay between individual’s gene polymorphism in XMEs’ genes, their altered epigenetic markers, and exposure to PAHs in cancer susceptibility in Pakistan.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1

Similar content being viewed by others

Abbreviations

XMEs:

xenobiotic-metabolizing enzymes

SCC:

squamous cell carcinoma

RCC:

renal cell carcinoma

GST:

glutathione s-transferase

CYP450:

cytochrome P450

PAHs:

polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons

ALDH:

aldehyde dehydrogenase

References

  • Ada AO, Kunak SC, Hancer F, Soydas E, Alpar S, Gulhan M, Iscan M (2012) Association between GSTM1, GSTT1, and GSTP1 polymorphisms and lung cancer risk in a Turkish population. Mol Biol Rep 39:5985–5993

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Afsar NA, Haenisch S, Mateen A, Usman A, Ahmed MUKZ, Ahmad HR (2010) Frequencies of Selected Drug Metabolizing Enzymes and ABC Drug Transporters among Breast Cancer Patients on FAC Chemotherapy, 16 June 2010, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1742-7843.2009.00531

  • Afsar NA, Ufer M, Haenisch S, Remmler C, Mateen A, Usman A, Ahmed KZ, Ahmad HR, Cascorbi I (2012) Relationship of drug metabolizing enzyme genotype to plasma levels as well as myelotoxicity of cyclophosphamide in breast cancer patients. Eur J Clin Pharmacol 68:389–395

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Afsar NA, Bruckmueller H, Werk AN, Nisar MK, Ahmad HR, Cascorbi I (2019) Implications of genetic variation of common drug metabolizing enzymes and ABC transporters among the Pakistani Population. Sci Rep 9(1):7323

    Google Scholar 

  • Ahmad ST, et al. (2012) Risk of renal cell carcinoma and polymorphism in phase I xenobiotic metabolizing CYP1A1 and CYP2D6 enzymes. Urologic Oncology: Seminars and Original Investigations. Elsevier

  • Ahmad ST, Arjumand W, Seth A, Nafees S, Rashid S, Ali N, Hamiza OO, Sultana S (2013) Risk of renal cell carcinoma and polymorphism in phase I xenobiotic metabolizing CYP1A1 and CYP2D6 enzymes. Urol Oncol 31(7):1350–1357

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Anantharaman D, Tanuja AS, SubrataSen MBM (2011) Polymorphisms in tobacco metabolism and DNA repair genes modulate oral precancer and cancer riskAuthor links open overlay panel. Oral Oncol 47(9):866–872

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Alegría-Torres JA, Barretta F, Batres-Esquivel LE, Carrizales-Yáñez L, Pérez-Maldonado IN, Baccarelli A, Bertazzi PA (2013) Epigenetic markers of exposure to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in Mexican brickmakers: a pilot study. Chemosphere. 91:475–480

    Google Scholar 

  • Alexandrie A-K, Warholm M, Carstensen U, Axmon A, Hagmar L, Levin JO, Ostman C, Rannug A (2000) CYP1A1 and GSTM1 polymorphisms affect urinary 1-hydroxypyrene levels after PAH exposure. Carcinogenesis. 21:669–676

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ali SS, et al. (n.d.) Persistent toxic impact of crude oil on mangroves as forge after Tasman Spirit oil at Karachi coast of Pakistan. of the encoded proteins. J Biol Chem 272:10004-10012

  • Ali-Osman, F., et al., 1997. Molecular cloning, characterization, and expression in Escherichia coli of full-length cDNAs of three human glutathione S-transferase Pi gene variants Evidence for differential catalytic activity

    Google Scholar 

  • Anderson LM (2006) Environmental genotoxicants/carcinogens and childhood cancer: bridgeable gaps in scientific knowledge. Mutation Res/Genet Toxicol Environ Mutagen 608:136–156

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Androutsopoulos VP, Tsatsakis AM, Spandidos DA (2009) Cytochrome P450 CYP1A1: wider roles in cancer progression and prevention. BMC Cancer 9:187

    Google Scholar 

  • Anttila S (2020) Lung cancer: mechanisms and markers—carcinogens other than asbestos. In: Anttila S, Boffetta P (eds) Occupational Cancers. Springer, Cham

    Google Scholar 

  • Armstrong B et al (2004) Lung cancer risk after exposure to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons: a review and meta-analysis. Environ Health Perspect 112:970

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ashraf MW, Taqvi SI, Solangi AR, Qureshi UA (2012) Distribution and risk assessment of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in vegetables grown in Pakistan. J Chem 26:2013

    Google Scholar 

  • Ashraf MW, Taqvi SIH, Solangi AR, Qureshi UA (2013) Distribution and Risk Assessment of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons in Vegetables Grown in Pakistan. J Chem 2013 Article ID 873959, 5 pages. https://doi.org/10.1155/2013/873959

  • Aziz F, Syed JH, Malik RN, Katsoyiannis A, Mahmood A, Li J, Zhang G, Jones KC (2014) Occurrence of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in the Soan River, Pakistan: insights into distribution, composition, sources and ecological risk assessment. Ecotoxicol Environ Saf 109:77–84

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bailey LR, Roodi N, Dupont WD, Parl FF (1998) Association of cytochrome P450 1B1 (CYP1B1) polymorphism with steroid receptor status in breast cancer. Cancer Res 58:5038–5041

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • B'chir F et al (2009) CYP1A2 genetic polymorphisms and adenocarcinoma lung cancer risk in the Tunisian population. Life Sci 84:779–784

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Beyerle J, Holowatyj AN, Haffa M, Frei E, Gigic B, Schrotz-King P, ... Kölsch T (2020) Expression patterns of xenobiotic-metabolizing enzymes in tumor and adjacent normal mucosa tissues among patients with colorectal cancer: the ColoCare study. Cancer Epidemiol Prevent Biomarkers 29(2):460-469

  • Bhurgri Y et al (2000) Cancer incidence in Karachi, Pakistan: first results from Karachi cancer registry. Int J Cancer 85:325–329

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bhurgri Y, Decullier E, Bhurgri A, Nassar S, Usman A, Brennan P, Boffetta P (2002) A case-control study of lung cancer in Karachi, Pakistan. Int J Cancer 98:952–955

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bhurgri Y et al (2006) Pakistan-country profile of cancer and cancer control 1995-2004. J-Pakistan Med Assoc 56:124

    Google Scholar 

  • Boffetta P, Jourenkova N, Gustavsson P (1997) Cancer risk from occupational and environmental exposure to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. Cancer Causes Control 8:444–472

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bolt HM, Roos PH, Thier R (2003) The cytochrome P-450 isoenzyme CYP2E1 in the biological processing of industrial chemicals: consequences for occupational and environmental medicine. Int Arch Occup Environ Health 76:174–185

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bosetti C, Boffetta P, la Vecchia C (2007) Occupational exposures to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, and respiratory and urinary tract cancers: a quantitative review to 2005. Ann Oncol 18:431–446

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Boström C-E et al (2002) Cancer risk assessment, indicators, and guidelines for polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in the ambient air. Environ Health Perspect 110:451

    Google Scholar 

  • Bouvard V, Baan R, Straif K, Grosse Y, Secretan B, el Ghissassi F, Benbrahim-Tallaa L, Guha N, Freeman C, Galichet L, Cogliano V, WHO International Agency for Research on Cancer Monograph Working Group (2009) A review of human carcinogens—Part B: biological agents. Lancet Oncol 10:321–322

    Google Scholar 

  • Campo L, Fustinoni S, Consonni D, Pavanello S, Kapka L, Siwinska E, Mielzyňska D, Bertazzi PA (2014) Urinary carcinogenic 4–6 ring polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in coke oven workers and in subjects belonging to the general population: Role of occupational and environmental exposure. Int J Hyg Environ Health 217:231–238

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Carpenter DO, Bushkin-Bedient S (2013) Exposure to chemicals and radiation during childhood and risk for cancer later in life. J Adolesc Health 52:S21–S29

    Google Scholar 

  • Catanzaro I et al (2012) Cytochrome P450 2E1 variable number tandem repeat polymorphisms and health risks: a genotype-phenotype study in cancers associated with drinking and/or smoking. Mol Med Rep 6:416–420

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cavalieri E, Rogan E (1985) Role of radical cations in aromatic hydrocarbon carcinogenesis. Environ Health Perspect 64:69–84

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Chang K-F, Fang GC, Chen JC, Wu YS (2006) Atmospheric polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in Asia: a review from 1999 to 2004. Environ Pollut 142:388–396

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Chen SY, Wang LY, Lunn RM, Tsai WY, Lee PH, Lee CS, Ahsan H, Zhang YJ, Chen CJ, Santella RM (2002) Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon-DNA adducts in liver tissues of hepatocellular carcinoma patients and controls. Int J Cancer 99:14–21

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Chen B, Hu Y, Jin T, Lu D, Shao M, Zheng L, Wang Q, Shen Y, Liu H, Liu Y, Zhou Y (2007) The influence of metabolic gene polymorphisms on urinary 1-hydroxypyrene concentrations in Chinese coke oven workers. Sci Total Environ 381:38–46

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cheng Y-W, Chen CY, Lin P, Chen CP, Huang KH, Lin TS, Wu MH, Lee H (2000) DNA adduct level in lung tissue may act as a risk biomarker of lung cancer. Eur J Cancer 36:1381–1388

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cho Y, et al. 2014 Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons exposure in residents living near a cement factory with kilns. International Archives of Occupational and Environmental Health 1-8

  • Choi Y-H, Kim JH, Hong YC (2013) CYP1A1 genetic polymorphism and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons on pulmonary function in the elderly: haplotype-based approach for gene–environment interaction. Toxicol Lett 221:185–190

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ciarrocca M, Rosati MV, Tomei F, Capozzella A, Andreozzi G, Tomei G, Bacaloni A, Casale T, Andrè JC, Fioravanti M, Cuartas MF, Caciari T (2014) Is urinary 1-hydroxypyrene a valid biomarker for exposure to air pollution in outdoor workers? a meta-analysis. J Expos Sci Environ Epidemiol 24:17–26

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Clapp RW, Howe GK, Jacobs MM (2007) Environmental and occupational causes of cancer: a call to act on what we know. Biomed Pharmacother 61:631–639

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cogliano VJ, Baan R, Straif K, Grosse Y, Lauby-Secretan B, el Ghissassi F, Bouvard V, Benbrahim-Tallaa L, Guha N, Freeman C, Galichet L, Wild CP (2011) Preventable exposures associated with human cancers. J Natl Cancer Inst 103:1827–1839

    Google Scholar 

  • Conner KP, Woods CM, Atkins WM (2011) Interactions of cytochrome P450s with their ligands. Arch Biochem Biophys 507:56–65

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Couraud S, Zalcman G, Milleron B, Morin F, Souquet PJ (2012) Lung cancer in never smokers – a review. Eur J Cancer 48:1299–1311

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Crosbie PA et al (2009) GSTM1 copy number and lung cancer risk. Mutation Res/Fundamental Molec Mech Mutagen 664:1–5

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Danko I, Chaschin N (2005) Association of CYP2E1 gene polymorphism with predisposition to cancer development. Exp Oncol 27:248–256

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Din IU (n.d.) Assessment of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon levels in serum and urine of petroleum associated workers (Doctoral dissertation, Arid Agriculture University, Rawalpindi)

  • do Vale Bosso RM et al (2006) Effects of genetic polymorphisms CYP1A1, GSTM1, GSTT1 and GSTP1 on urinary 1-hydroxypyrene levels in sugarcane workers. Sci Total Environ 370:382–390

    Google Scholar 

  • Duggan C et al (2013) Associations between null mutations in GSTT1 and GSTM1, the GSTP1 Ile105Val polymorphism, and mortality in breast cancer survivors. SpringerPlus. 2:1–9

    Google Scholar 

  • Durham AL et al (2011) Epigenetics of asthma. Biochim Biophys Acta (BBA)-General Subjects 1810:1103–1109

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ebrahimkhani S, Asgharian AM, Nourinaier B, Ebrahimkhani K, Vali N, Abbasi F, Zali MR (2012) Association of GSTM1, GSTT1, GSTP1 and CYP2E1 single nucleotide polymorphisms with colorectal cancer in Iran. Pathol Oncol Res 18:651–656

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Economopoulos KP, Sergentanis TN (2010) GSTM1, GSTT1, GSTP1, GSTA1 and colorectal cancer risk: a comprehensive meta-analysis. Eur J Cancer 46:1617–1631

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Egan KM et al (2004) Genetic polymorphisms in GSTM1, GSTP1, and GSTT1 and the risk for breast cancer results from the Shanghai breast cancer study and meta-analysis. Cancer Epidemiol Biomark Prev 13:197–204

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • El Ghissassi F et al (2009) A review of human carcinogens—part D: radiation. Lancet Oncol 10:751–752

    Google Scholar 

  • Farker K, Lehmann MH, Oelschlägel B, Haerting J, Hoffmann A, Janitzky V, Schubert J (1998) Impact of CYP2E1 genotype in renal cell and urothelial cancer patients. Exp Toxicol Pathol 50:425–431

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Farooq S, Ali-Musstjab-Akber-Shah Eqani S, Malik RN, Katsoyiannis A, Zhang G, Zhang Y, Li J, Xiang L, Jones KC, Shinwari ZK (2011) Occurrence, finger printing and ecological risk assessment of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in the Chenab River, Pakistan. J Environ Monit 13:3207–3215

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gajjar K, Martin-Hirsch PL, Martin FL (2012) CYP1B1 and hormone-induced cancer. Cancer Lett 324:13–30

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gao Y, Zhang Q (1999) Polymorphisms of the GSTM1 and CYP2D6 genes associated with susceptibility to lung cancer in Chinese. Mutation Res/Genet Toxicol Environ Mutagen 444:441–449

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gao Y, Cao Y, Tan A, Liao C, Mo Z, Gao F (2010) Glutathione S–Transferase M1 polymorphism and sporadic colorectal cancer risk: an updating meta-analysis and HuGE review of 36 case-control studies. Ann Epidemiol 20:108–121

    Google Scholar 

  • Gao Q et al (2011) Modification of GSTM1, GSTT1 and GSTP1 gene polymorphisms on urinary 1-hydroxypyrene excretions. Zhonghua lao dong wei sheng zhi ye bing za zhi = Zhonghua laodong weisheng zhiyebing zazhi = Chinese journal of industrial hygiene and occupational diseases 29:11–15

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • García-Gonzalez MA et al (2012) Relevance of GSTM1, GSTT1, and GSTP1 gene polymorphisms to gastric cancer susceptibility and phenotype. Mutagenesis. 27:771–777

    Google Scholar 

  • Garcia-Suastegui W et al (2011) Seasonal variations in the levels of PAH–DNA adducts in young adults living in Mexico City. Mutagenesis. 26:385–391

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Giannandrea F, Fargnoli S (2017) Environmental factors affecting growth and occurrence of testicular cancer in childhood: an overview of the current epidemiological evidence. Children 4(1):1

    Google Scholar 

  • Giri SK, Anita Yadav, Kumar A, Dev K, Gupta R, Aggarwal N, Seth N, Gautam SK (2011) Association of GSTM1 and GSTT1 polymorphisms with DNA damage in coal-tar workers. Sci Total Environ 409:4465–4469

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gonzalez FJ, Gelboin HV (1994) Role of human cytochromes P450 in the metabolic activation of chemical carcinogens and toxins. Drug Metab Rev 26:165–183

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Grosse Y, Baan R, Secretan-Lauby B, el Ghissassi F, Bouvard V, Benbrahim-Tallaa L, Guha N, Islami F, Galichet L, Straif K, WHO International Agency for Research on Cancer Monograph Working Group (2011) Carcinogenicity of chemicals in industrial and consumer products, food contaminants and flavourings, and water chlorination byproducts. Lancet Oncol 12:328–329

    Google Scholar 

  • Hafeez S, Ahmed A, Rashid AZ, Kayani MA (2012) Down-regulation of CYP1A1 expression in breast cancer. Asian Pac J Cancer Prev 13:1757–1760

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hamid N, Syed JH, Junaid M, Mahmood A, Li J, Zhang G, Malik RN (2018) Elucidating the urban levels, sources and health risks of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in Pakistan: implications for changing energy demand. Sci Total Environ 619:165–175

    Google Scholar 

  • Hanaoka T, Yamano Y, Pan G, Hara K, Ichiba M, Zhang J, Zhang S, Liu T, Li L, Takahashi K, Kagawa J, Tsugane S (2002) Cytochrome P450 1B1 mRNA levels in peripheral blood cells and exposure to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in Chinese coke oven workers. Sci Total Environ 296:27–33

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hansen ÅM, Mathiesen L, Pedersen M, Knudsen LE (2008) Urinary 1-hydroxypyrene (1-HP) in environmental and occupational studies—a review. Int J Hyg Environ Health 211:471–503

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hayes JD, Pulford DJ (1995) The Glutathione S-Transferase supergene family: regulation of GST and the contribution of the lsoenzymes to cancer chemoprotection and drug resistance part I. Crit Rev Biochem Mol Biol 30:445–520

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hayes JD, Flanagan JU, Jowsey IR (2005) Glutathione transferases. Annu Rev Pharmacol Toxicol 45:51–88

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hecht SS (2003) Tobacco carcinogens, their biomarkers and tobacco-induced cancer. Nat Rev Cancer 3:733–744

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Higginson J, Muir C (1976) Determination of the importance of environmental factors in human cancer: the role of epidemiology. Bull Cancer 64:365–384

    Google Scholar 

  • Hong YC, Leem JH, Park HS, Lee KH, Lee SJ, Lee CK, Kang D (1999) Variations in urinary 1-hydroxypyrene glucuronide in relation to smoking and the modification effects of GSTM1 and GSTT1. Toxicol Lett 108:217–223

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hosgood HD III et al (2007) GST genotypes and lung cancer susceptibility in Asian populations with indoor air pollution exposures: a meta-analysis. Mutation Res/Rev Mutation Res 636:134–143

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hu J, Hurst JA, O'Donnell GE (2012) The determination of occupational exposure to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons by the analysis of 1-hydroxypyrene in urine using a simple automated online column switching device and high-performance liquid chromatography. J Anal Toxicol 36:334–339

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • http://monographs.iarc.fr/ENG/Classification/index.php. Vol. 2014.

  • Hussain I, Syed JH, Kamal A, Iqbal M, Bong CW, Taqi MM, Reichenauer TG, Zhang G, Malik RN (2016) The relative abundance and seasonal distribution correspond with the sources of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in the surface sediments of Chenab River, Pakistan. Environ Monit Assess 188(6):378

    Google Scholar 

  • Iizasa T, Baba M, Saitoh Y, Suzuki M, Haga Y, Iyoda A, Chang H, Hiroshima K, Itoga S, Tomonaga T, Nomura F, Fujisawa T (2005) A polymorphism in the 5′-flanking region of the CYP2E1 gene and elevated lung adenocarcinoma risk in a Japanese population. Oncol Rep 14:919–923

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Islam MS, Ahmed MU, Bin Sayeed MS, al Maruf A, Mostofa AGM, Akram Hussain SM, Kabir Y, Daly AK, Hasnat A (2013) Lung cancer risk in relation to nicotinic acetylcholine receptor, CYP2A6 and CYP1A1 genotypes in the Bangladeshi population. Clin Chim Acta 416:11–19

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Jain M, Kumar S, Rastogi N, Lal P, Ghoshal UC, Tiwari A, Pant MC, Baiq MQ, Mittal B (2006) GSTT1, GSTM1 and GSTP1 genetic polymorphisms and interaction with tobacco, alcohol and occupational exposure in esophageal cancer patients from North India. Cancer Lett 242:60–67

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Jan FA, Khan S, Ishaq M, Naeem M, Ahmad I, Hussain S (2014) Brick kiln exhaust as a source of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in the surrounding soil and plants: a case study from the city of Peshawar, Pakistan. Arab J Geosci 7:13–19

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Jeffy BD, Chirnomas RB, Romagnolo DF (2002) Epigenetics of breast cancer: polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons as risk factors. Environ Mol Mutagen 39:235–244

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Jemal A, Bray F, Center MM, Ferlay J, Ward E, Forman D (2011) Global cancer statistics. CA Cancer J Clin 61:69–90

    Google Scholar 

  • Jeng HA, et al. (2013) Biomonitoring of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons from coke oven emissions and reproductive toxicity in nonsmoking workers. J Hazard Mater

  • Jongeneelen FJ (1997) Methods for routine biological monitoring of carcinogenic PAH-mixtures. Sci Total Environ 199:141–149

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kamal A, Malik RN (2012) Hematological evidence of occupational exposure to chemicals and other factors among auto-repair workers in Rawalpindi, Pakistan. Osong Public Health Res Perspect 3:229–238

    Google Scholar 

  • Kamal A, Malik RN, Martellini T, Cincinelli A (2014) PAH exposure to biomarkers are associated with clinico-chemical changes in the brick kiln workers in Pakistan. Sci Total Environ 490:521–527

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kamal A, Cincinelli A, Martellini T, Malik RN (2015a) A review of PAH exposure from the combustion of biomass fuel and their less surveyed effect on the blood parameters. Environ Sci Pollut Res 22(6):4076–4098

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kamal A, Qamar K, Gulfraz M, Anwar MA, Malik RN (2015b) PAH exposure and oxidative stress indicators of human cohorts exposed to traffic pollution in Lahore city (Pakistan). Chemosphere 120:59–67

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kamal A, Syed JH, Li J, Zhang G, Mahmood A, Malik RN (2016a) Profile of atmospheric PAHs in Rawalpindi, Lahore and Gujranwala districts of Punjab province (Pakistan). Aerosol Air Qual Res 16:1010–1021

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kamal A, Cincinelli A, Martellini T, Palchetti I, Bettazzi F, Malik RN (2016b) Health and carcinogenic risk evaluation for cohorts exposed to PAHs in petrochemical workplaces in Rawalpindi city (Pakistan). Int J Environ Health Res 26(1):37–57

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kihara M, Kihara M, Noda K (1999) Lung cancer risk of the GSTM1 null genotype is enhanced in the presence of the GSTP1 mutated genotype in male Japanese smokers. Cancer Lett 137:53–60

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kim JH, Sherman ME, Curriero FC, Guengerich FP, Strickland PT, Sutter TR (2004) Expression of cytochromes P450 1A1 and 1B1 in human lung from smokers, non-smokers, and ex-smokers. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 199:210–219

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kiriluk KJ, et al. (2012) Bladder cancer risk from occupational and environmental exposures. Urologic Oncology: Seminars and Original Investigations, Vol. 30. Elsevier, pp. 199-211

  • Knudson AG (1971) Mutation and cancer: statistical study of retinoblastoma. Proc Natl Acad Sci 68(4):820–823

    Google Scholar 

  • Kobayashi M, Otani T, Iwasaki M, Natsukawa S, Shaura K, Koizumi Y, Kasuga Y, Sakamoto H, Yoshida T, Tsugane S (2009) Association between dietary heterocyclic amine levels, genetic polymorphisms of NAT2, CYP1A1, and CYP1A2 and risk of stomach cancer: a hospital-based case-control study in Japan. Gastric Cancer 12:198–205

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kumar V, Singh S, Yadav CS, Ahmed RS, Gupta S, Pasha ST, Tripathi AK, Banerjee BD (2010) CYP1A1 and CYP3A4 polymorphic variations in Delhi population of Northern India. Environ Toxicol Pharmacol 29:126–130

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kumar A, Yadav A, Giri SK, Dev K, Gautam SK, Gupta R, Aggarwal N (2011) Effect of genetic polymorphism of GSTM1 and GSTT1 genotypes on cytogenetic biomarkers among coaltar workers. Environ Toxicol Pharmacol 32:128–135

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ladona MG, Abildúa RE, Ladero JM, Román JM, Plaza MA, Agúndez JAG, Muñoz JJ, Beníez J (1996) CYP2D6 genotypes in Spanish women with breast cancer. Cancer Lett 99:23–28

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lan Q et al (2000) Indoor coal combustion emissions, GSTM1 and GSTT1 genotypes, and lung cancer risk: a case-control study in Xuan Wei, China. Cancer Epidemiol Biomark Prevent 9:605–608

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Le Marchand L et al (2001) Combined effects of well-done red meat, smoking, and rapid N-acetyltransferase 2 and CYP1A2 phenotypes in increasing colorectal cancer risk. Cancer Epidemiol Biomark Prev 10:1259–1266

    Google Scholar 

  • Lee C-Y, Lee JY, Kang JW, Kim H (2001) Effects of genetic polymorphisms of CYP1A1, CYP2E1, GSTM1, and GSTT1 on the urinary levels of 1-hydroxypyrene and 2-naphthol in aircraft maintenance workers. Toxicol Lett 123:115–124

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lee DG, Burstyn I, Lai AS, Grundy A, Friesen MC, Aronson KJ, Spinelli JJ (2019) Women’s occupational exposure to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and risk of breast cancer. Occup Environ Med 76(1):22–29

    Google Scholar 

  • Lemm F, Wilhelm M, Roos PH (2004) Occupational exposure to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons suppresses constitutive expression of CYP1B1 on the transcript level in human leukocytes. Int J Hyg Environ Health 207:325–335

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lewis SJ, Cherry NM, Niven RML, Barber PV, Povey AC (2002) GSTM1, GSTT1 and GSTP1 polymorphisms and lung cancer risk. Cancer Lett 180:165–171

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Li Z, et al. (2014) Quantification of 21 metabolites of methylnaphthalenes and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in human urine. Anal Bioanal Chem 1-11

  • Little J, Sharp L, Masson LF, Brockton NT, Cotton SC, Haites NE, Cassidy J (2006) Colorectal cancer and genetic polymorphisms of CYP1A1, GSTM1 and GSTT1: A case-control study in the Grampian region of Scotland. Int J Cancer 119:2155–2164

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Liu S, Park JY, Schantz SP, Stern JC, Lazarus P (2001) Elucidation of CYP2E1 5′ regulatory RsaI/Pstl allelic variants and their role in risk for oral cancer. Oral Oncol 37:437–445

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Liu M et al. (2013) Association between GSTM1 polymorphism and DNA adduct concentration in the occupational workers exposed to PAHs: A meta analysis. Gene

  • Luo Y, Chen H, Zhu Q, Peng C, Yang G, Yang Y et al (2014) Relationship between air pollutants and economic development of the provincial capital cities in China during the past decade. PLoS One 9(8):e104013. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0104013

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ma J-X, Zhang KL, Liu X, Ma YL, Pei LN, Zhu YF, Zhou L, Chen XY, Kong QY, Li H, Liu J (2006) Concurrent expression of aryl hydrocarbon receptor and CYP1A1 but not CYP1A1 MspI polymorphism is correlated with gastric cancers raised in Dalian, China. Cancer Lett 240:253–260

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • MacLeod S, Sinha R, Kadlubar FF, Lang NP (1997) Polymorphisms of CYP1A1 and GSTM1 influence the in vivo function of CYP1A2. Mutation Res/Fundamental Molec Mech Mutagen 376:135–142

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Marques CFS, Koifman S, Koifman RJ, Boffetta P, Brennan P, Hatagima A (2006) Influence of CYP1A1, CYP2E1, GSTM3 and NAT2 genetic polymorphisms in oral cancer susceptibility: results from a case-control study in Rio de Janeiro. Oral Oncol 42:632–637

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Masood N, Kayani MA (2011) Mutational analysis of xenobiotic metabolizing genes (CYP1A1 and GSTP1) in sporadic head and neck cancer patients. Genet Mol Biol 34:533–538

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Masood N, Kayani MA (2013) Expression patterns of carcinogen detoxifying genes (CYP1A1, GSTP1 & GSTT1) in HNC patients. Pathol Oncol Res 19:89–94

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Masood K, Masood A, Zafar J, Shahid A, Kamran M, Murad S, Masood M et al (2015) Trends and analysis of cancer incidence for common male and female cancers in the population of Punjab province of Pakistan during 1984 to 2014. Asian Pac J Cancer Prev 16:5297–5304

    Google Scholar 

  • Masood N, Kayani MA, Malik FA, Mahjabeen I, Baig RM, Faryal R (2011a) Genetic variation in carcinogen metabolizing genes associated with oral cancer in Pakistani population. Asian Pac J Cancer Prev 12:491–495

    Google Scholar 

  • Masood N et al (2011b) A novel CYP1A1 gene polymorphism and the risk of head and neck cancer in Pakistani population. Afr J Biotechnol 10:5273–5280

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Masood N et al (2012) Unusual intronic variant in GSTP1 in head and neck cancer in Pakistan. Asian Pac J Cancer Prev 13:1–4

    Google Scholar 

  • Matic M, et al. (2013) GSTA1, GSTM1, GSTP1, and GSTT1 polymorphisms and susceptibility to smoking-related bladder cancer: a case-control study. Urologic Oncology: Seminars and Original Investigations, Vol. 31. Elsevier, pp. 1184-1192

  • McCredie M, Stewart J (1992) Risk factors for kidney cancer in New South Wales, Australia. II. Urologic disease, hypertension, obesity, and hormonal factors. Cancer Causes Control 3:323–331

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • McIlwain C et al (2006) Glutathione S-transferase polymorphisms: cancer incidence and therapy. Oncogene. 25:1639–1648

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • McLaughlin J, Malker HS, Stone BJ, Weiner JA, Malker BK, Ericsson JL, Blot WJ, Fraumeni JF Jr (1987) Occupational risks for renal cancer in Sweden. Br J Ind Med 44:119–123

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mellemgaard A, Engholm G, McLaughlin JK, Olsen JH (1994) Occupational risk factors for renal-cell carcinoma in Denmark. Scand J Work Environ Health 20:160–165

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Migliore L, Coppedè F (2009) Environmental-induced oxidative stress in neurodegenerative disorders and aging. Mutation Res/Genet Toxicol Environ Mutagen 674:73–84

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mishra DK, Kumar A, Srivastava DS, Mittal RD (2004) Allelic variation of GSTT1, GSTM1 and GSTP1 genes in a North Indian population. Asian Pac J Cancer Prev 5:362–365

    Google Scholar 

  • Moorthy B, Chu C, Carlin DJ (2015) Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons: from metabolism to lung cancer. Soc Toxicol

  • Mota P et al (2010) CYP1A1 m1 and m2 polymorphisms: genetic susceptibility to lung cancer. Revista Portuguesa de Pneumologia (English Ed) 16:89–98

    Google Scholar 

  • Murata M, Watanabe M, Yamanaka M, Kubota Y, Ito H, Nagao M, Katoh T, Kamataki T, Kawamura J, Yatani R, Shiraishi T (2001) Genetic polymorphisms in cytochrome P450 (CYP) 1A1, CYP1A2, CYP2E1, glutathione S-transferase (GST) M1 and GSTT1 and susceptibility to prostate cancer in the Japanese population. Cancer Lett 165:171–177

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Nan H-M et al (2001) Effects of occupation, lifestyle and genetic polymorphisms of CYP1A1, CYP2E1, GSTM1 and GSTT1 on urinary 1-hydroxypyrene and 2-naphthol concentrations. Carcinogenesis. 22:787–793

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Nerurkar PV et al (2000) CYP1A1, GSTM1, and GSTP1 genetic polymorphisms and urinary 1-hydroxypyrene excretion in non-occupationally exposed individuals. cancer epidemiology. Biomark Prevent 9:1119–1122

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Neumann AS, Sturgis EM, Wei Q (2005) Nucleotide excision repair as a marker for susceptibility to tobacco related cancers: a review of molecular epidemiological studies. Mol Carcinog 42:65–92

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Nosheen M, Ishrat M, Malik FA, Baig RM, Kayani MA (2010) Association of GSTM1 and GSTT1 gene deletions with risk of head and neck cancer in Pakistan: a case control study. Asian Pac J Cancer Prev 11:881–885

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Osawa Y et al (2007) NAT2 and CYP1A2 polymorphisms and lung cancer risk in relation to smoking status. Asian Pac J Cancer Prev 8:103

    Google Scholar 

  • Pandey R, Mehrotra D, Catapano C, Choubey V, Sarin R, Mahdi AA, Singh S (2012) Association of mitochondrial deoxyribonucleic acid mutation with polymorphism in CYP2E1 gene in oral carcinogenesis. J Oral Biol Craniofac Res 2:4–9

    Google Scholar 

  • Pavanello S, Pulliero A, Saia BO, Clonfero E (2006) Determinants of anti-benzo[a]pyrene diol epoxide–DNA adduct formation in lymphomonocytes of the general population. Mutation Res/Genet Toxicol Environ Mutagen 611:54–63

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Pavanello S, B’chir F, Pulliero A, Saguem S, Ben Fraj R, el Aziz Hayouni A, Clonfero E, Mastrangelo G (2007) Interaction between CYP1A2-T2467DELT polymorphism and smoking in adenocarcinoma and squamous cell carcinoma of the lung. Lung Cancer 57:266–272

    Google Scholar 

  • Pavanello S, Mastrangelo G, Placidi D, Campagna M, Pulliero A, Carta A, Arici C, Porru S (2010a) CYP1A2 polymorphisms, occupational and environmental exposures and risk of bladder cancer. Eur J Epidemiol 25:491–500

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Pavanello S, Pesatori AC, Dioni L, Hoxha M, Bollati V, Siwinska E, Mielzynska D, Bolognesi C, Bertazzi PA, Baccarelli A (2010b) Shorter telomere length in peripheral blood lymphocytes of workers exposed to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. Carcinogenesis. 31:216–221

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Payne S, Chan N, Davies A, Poon E, Connor S, Goh C (2012) Supportive, palliative, and end-of-life care for patients with cancer in Asia: resource-stratified guidelines from the Asian Oncology Summit 2012. Lancet Oncol 13:e492–e500

    Google Scholar 

  • Perera V et al (2012) Influence of environmental and genetic factors on CYP1A2 activity in individuals of South Asian and European ancestry. Clin Pharmacol Therapeut 92:511–519

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Petchpoung K, Kaojarern S, Yoovathaworn K, Sura T, Sirivarasai J (2011a) The influence of metabolic gene polymorphisms on urinary 1-hydroxypyrene concentration in Thai bus drivers. Environ Toxicol Pharmacol 31:160–164

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Petchpoung K, Kaojarern S, Yoovathaworn K, Sura T, Sirivarasai J (2011b) The influence of metabolic gene polymorphisms on urinary 1-hydroxypyrene concentration in Thai bus drivers. Environ Toxicol Pharmacol 31:160–164

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Petersen A et al (2010) Cancer morbidity among Danish male urban bus drivers: a historical cohort study. Am J Ind Med 53:757–761

    Google Scholar 

  • Pliarchopoulou K et al (2012) Correlation of CYP1A1, GSTP1 and GSTM1 gene polymorphisms and lung cancer risk among smokers. Oncol Lett 3:1301–1306

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Popat K, McQueen K, Feeley TW (2013) The global burden of cancer. Best Pract Res Clin Anaesthesiol 27:399–408

    Google Scholar 

  • Porru S, Pavanello S, Carta A, Arici C, Simeone C, Izzotti A, Mastrangelo G (2014) Complex relationships between occupation, environment, DNA adducts, genetic polymorphisms and bladder cancer in a case-control study using a structural equation modeling. PLoS One 9:e94566

    Google Scholar 

  • Qamar Z, Khan S, Khan A, Aamir M, Nawab J, Waqas M (2017) Appraisement, source apportionment and health risk of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in vehicle-wash wastewater, Pakistan. Sci Total Environ 605:106–113

    Google Scholar 

  • Quinones L et al (2001) CYP1A1, CYP2E1 and GSTM1 genetic polymorphisms. The effect of single and combined genotypes on lung cancer susceptibility in Chilean people. Cancer Lett 174:35–44

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rai R, Glass DC, Heyworth JS, Saunders C, Fritschi L (2016) Occupational exposures to engine exhausts and other PAHs and breast cancer risk: a population-based case-control study. Am J Ind Med 59(6):437–444

    Google Scholar 

  • Raimondi S, Botteri E, Iodice S, Lowenfels AB, Maisonneuve P (2009) Gene–smoking interaction on colorectal adenoma and cancer risk: review and meta-analysis. Mutation Res/Fundamental Molec Mech Mutagen 670:6–14

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ramesh A, Walker SA, Hood DB, Guillén MD, Schneider K, Weyand EH (2004) Bioavailability and risk assessment of orally ingested polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. Int J Toxicol 23:301–333

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rehman MYA, Kamal A, Taqi MM, Malik RN (2017) Tracing biomarker of PAH-exposure and susceptibility factor (GSTM-polymorphism) among cancer patients in Pakistan. Chemosphere 178:384–390

    Google Scholar 

  • Rihs H-P, Pesch B, Kappler M, Rabstein S, Roßbach B, Angerer J, Scherenberg M, Adams A, Wilhelm M, Seidel A, Brüning T (2005) Occupational exposure to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in German industries: association between exogenous exposure and urinary metabolites and its modulation by enzyme polymorphisms. Toxicol Lett 157:241–255

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rodrigues IS, Kuasne H, Losi-Guembarovski R, Fuganti PE, Gregório ÉP, Kishima MO, Ito K, de Freitas Rodrigues MA, de Syllos Cólus IM (2011) Evaluation of the influence of polymorphic variants CYP1A1*2B, CYP1B1*2, CYP3A4*1B, GSTM1*0, and GSTT1*0 in prostate cancer. Urol Oncol: Seminars Orig Investig 29:654–663

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rundle A, Tang D, Hibshoosh H, Estabrook A, Schnabel F, Cao W, Grumet S, Perera FP (2000) The relationship between genetic damage from polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in breast tissue and breast cancer. Carcinogenesis. 21:1281–1289

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Saba B, Rafique U, Hashmi I (2011) Adsorption kinetics of anthracene and phenanthrene in different soils of Attock Refinery Limited (ARL) Rawalpindi, Pakistan. Desalin Water Treat 30:333–338

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Saba B, Hashmi I, Awan MA, Nasir H, Khan SJ (2012) Distribution, toxicity level, and concentration of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in surface soil and groundwater of Rawalpindi, Pakistan. Desalin Water Treat 49:240–247

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sabitha K, Vishnuvardhan Reddy M, Jamil K (2010) Smoking related risk involved in individuals carrying genetic variants of CYP1A1 gene in head and neck cancer. Cancer Epidemiol 34:587–592

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Salinas-Sanchez AS et al (2012) Role of CYP1B1 gene polymorphisms in bladder cancer susceptibility. J Urol 187:700–706

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sangrajrang S, Sato Y, Sakamoto H, Ohnami S, Laird NM, Khuhaprema T, Brennan P, Boffetta P, Yoshida T (2009) Genetic polymorphisms of estrogen metabolizing enzyme and breast cancer risk in Thai women. Int J Cancer 125:837–843

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Schoket B (2011) Biomarkers in environmental carcinogenesis. In: Nriagu JO (ed) Encyclopedia of Environmental Health. Elsevier, Burlington, pp 378–388

    Google Scholar 

  • Shaikh RS, Amir M, Masood AI, Sohail A, Athar HUR, Siraj S, Ali M, Anjam MS (2010) Frequency distribution of GSTM1 and GSTT1 null allele in Pakistani population and risk of disease incidence. Environ Toxicol Pharmacol 30:76–79

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Shi X, Zhou S, Wang Z, Zhou Z, Wang Z (2008) CYP1A1 and GSTM1 polymorphisms and lung cancer risk in Chinese populations: a meta-analysis. Lung Cancer 59:155–163

    Google Scholar 

  • Shimada T (2006) Xenobiotic-metabolizing enzymes involved in activation and detoxification of carcinogenic polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. Drug Metab Pharmacokinet 21:257–276

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Shimada T, Fujii Kuriyama Y (2004) Metabolic activation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons to carcinogens by cytochromes P450 1A1 and1B1. Cancer Sci 95:1–6

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Singh S, Kumar V, Thakur S, Banerjee BD, Grover SS, Rawat DS, Pasha ST, Jain SK, Lal S, Rai A (2009) Genetic polymorphism of glutathione S-transferase M1 and T1 in Delhi population of Northern India. Environ Toxicol Pharmacol 28:25–29

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Smith D et al (1995) Polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbon concentrations in road dust and soil samples collected in the United Kingdom and Pakistan. Environ Technol 16:45–53

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Smith D et al (1996) Concentrations of particulate airborne polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and metals collected in Lahore, Pakistan. Atmos Environ 30:4031–4040

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sobti RC et al (2006) Genetic polymorphisms of CYP2D6, GSTM1, and GSTT1 genes and bladder cancer risk in North India. Cancer Genet Cytogenet 156:68–73

    Google Scholar 

  • Sohail A, Kanwal N, Ali M, Sadia S, Masood AI, Ali F, Iqbal F, Crickmore N, Shaikh RS, Sayyed AH (2013) Effects of glutathione-S-transferase polymorphisms on the risk of breast cancer: a population-based case–control study in Pakistan. Environ Toxicol Pharmacol 35:143–153

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Solomon GM, Weiss PM (2002) Chemical contaminants in breast milk: time trends and regional variability. Environ Health Perspect 110:A339

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Song M-K, Song M, Choi HS, Kim YJ, Park YK, Ryu JC (2012) Identification of molecular signatures predicting the carcinogenicity of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). Toxicol Lett 212:18–28

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Soomro A et al (2008) Pesticides in the blood samples of spray-workers at agriculture environment. The Toxicological Evaluation. Pak J Anal Environ Chem 91:32–37

    Google Scholar 

  • Soya S et al (2007) Genetic polymorphisms of glutathione-S-transferase genes (GSTM1,GSTT1 and GSTP1) and upper aerodigestive tract cancer risk among smokers, tobacco chewers and alcoholics in an Indian population. Eur J Cancer 43:2698–2706

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Srivastava DSL, Mandhani A, Mittal B, Mittal RD (2005) Genetic polymorphism of glutathione S-transferase genes (GSTM1, GSTT1 and GSTP1) and susceptibility to prostate cancer in Northern India. BJU Int 95:170–173

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Straif K, Baan R, Grosse Y, Secretan B, el Ghissassi F, Cogliano V, WHO International Agency for Research on Cancer Monograph Working Group (2005) Carcinogenicity of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. Lancet Oncol 6:931–932

    Google Scholar 

  • Sun H-L, Han B, Zhai HP, Cheng XH, Ma K (2014) Association between glutathione S-transferase M1 null genotype and risk of gallbladder cancer: a meta-analysis. Tumor Biol 35:501–505

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Szyf M, McGowan P, Meaney MJ (2008) The social environment and the epigenome. Environ Mol Mutagen 49:46–60

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Tan C, Xu HY, Zhang CY, Zhang H, Chen CM, Zhang WM, Sun XY, Jin YT (2011) Effect of CYP1A1 MSPI polymorphism on the relationship between TP53 mutation and CDKN2A hypermethylation in non-small cell lung cancer. Arch Med Res 42:669–676

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Tang D, Rundle A, Warburton D, Santella RM, Tsai WY, Chiamprasert S, Hsu YZ, Perera FP (1998) Associations between both genetic and environmental biomarkers and lung cancer: evidence of a greater risk of lung cancer in women smokers. Carcinogenesis. 19:1949–1953

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Thomson JP, et al. (2013) Epigenetic profiles as defined signatures of xenobiotic exposure. Mutation Res/Genet Toxicol Environ Mutagen

  • Thuerauf P-DDN, Lunkenheimer J (2006) The impact of the CYP2D6-polymorphism on dose recommendations for current antidepressants. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci 256:287–293

    Google Scholar 

  • Townsend DM, Tew KD (2003) Cancer drugs, genetic variation and the glutathione-S-transferase gene family. Am J Pharmacogenomics 3:157–172

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Toyooka T, Ibuki Y (2007) DNA damage induced by coexposure to PAHs and light. Environ Toxicol Pharmacol 23:256–263

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Trafalis DT, Panteli ES, Grivas A, Tsigris C, Karamanakos PN (2010) CYP2E1 and risk of chemically mediated cancers. Expert Opin Drug Metab Toxicol 6:307–319

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • ud Din I et al (2013) Effect of land use activities on PAH contamination in urban soils of Rawalpindi and Islamabad, Pakistan. Environ Monit Assess 185:8685–8694

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • van Delft JH et al (2001) Biological monitoring the exposure to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons of coke oven workers in relation to smoking and genetic polymorphisms for GSTM1 and GSTT1. Ann Occup Hyg 45:395–408

    Google Scholar 

  • Verma M, Manne U (2006) Genetic and epigenetic biomarkers in cancer diagnosis and identifying high risk populations. Crit Rev Oncol Hematol 60:9–18

    Google Scholar 

  • Wang S-L et al (1999) Cytochrome P4502E1 genetic polymorphisms and lung cancer in a Taiwanese population. Lung Cancer 26:27–34

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wang XL, Greco M, Sim AS, Duarte N, Wang J, Wilcken DEL (2002) Effect of CYP1A1 MspI polymorphism on cigarette smoking related coronary artery disease and diabetes. Atherosclerosis. 162:391–397

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wang H, Yamamoto JF, Caberto C, Saltzman B, Decker R, Vogt TM, Yokochi L, Chanock S, Wilkens LR, le Marchand L (2011) Genetic variation in the bioactivation pathway for polycyclic hydrocarbons and heterocyclic amines in relation to risk of colorectal neoplasia. Carcinogenesis. 32:203–209

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wang D, Su M, Tian D, Liang S, Zhang J (2012a) Associations between CYP1A1 and CYP2E1 polymorphisms and susceptibility to esophageal cancer in Chaoshan and Taihang areas of China. Cancer Epidemiol 36:276–282

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wang H, Zhang Z, Han S, Lu Y, Feng F, Yuan J (2012b) CYP1A2 rs762551 polymorphism contributes to cancer susceptibility: a meta-analysis from 19 case-control studies. BMC Cancer 12:528

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Waqas M, Khan S, Chao C, Shamshad I, Qamar Z, Khan K (2014) Quantification of PAHs and health risk via ingestion of vegetable in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Province, Pakistan. Sci Total Environ 497:448–458

    Google Scholar 

  • Watanabe J, Shimada T, Gillam EMJ, Ikuta T, Suemasu K, Higashi Y, Gotoh O, Kawajiri K (2000) Association of CYP1B1 genetic polymorphism with incidence to breast and lung cancer. Pharmacogenet Genomics 10:25–33

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • WHO (2013) Data and Statistics

  • WMO/IGAC (2012) Impatcts of megacities on air pollution and climate

  • Xu, C-h, et al. (2014) GSTP1 Ile105Val polymorphism is associated with lung cancer risk among Asian population and smokers: an updated meta-analysis. Molecular biology reports. 1-14

  • Yamano Y et al (2013) Urinary 1-hydroxypyrene as a comprehensive carcinogenic biomarker of exposure to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons: a cross-sectional study of coke oven workers in China. Int Arch Occup Environ Health. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00420-013-0913-6

  • Yan Z et al (2008) [CYP2D6* 10 polymorphisms and lung cancer susceptibility]. Zhongguo yi xue ke xue yuan xue bao. Acta Academiae Medicinae Sinicae 30:564–568

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Yang X, Qiu MT, Hu JW, Wang XX, Jiang F, Yin R, Xu L (2013) GSTT1 null genotype contributes to lung cancer risk in asian populations: a meta-analysis of 23 studies. PLoS One 8:e62181

    Google Scholar 

  • Zeb A et al (2006) Occupation and cancer incidence in District Dir (NWFP), Pakistan, 2000-2004. Asian Pac J Cancer Prev 7:483

    Google Scholar 

  • Zhang H, Li L, Xu Y (2013) CYP1B1 polymorphisms and susceptibility to prostate cancer: a meta-analysis. PLoS One 8:e68634

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Zhang Y et al (2014) GSTM1 null polymorphisms is associated with laryngeal cancer risk: a meta-analysis. Tumor Biol. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13277-014-1828-x

  • Zhao Y, Luo Y, Huang B, Qin B, Zhang T, Zhang J, Gu X, Zheng G, Zheng Z (2013) GSTT1 null genotype contributes to increased risk of gastric cancer in Chinese population: evidence from a meta-analysis. Tumor Biol 34:1691–1697

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Zhao S-F, Yang XD, Lu MX, Sun GW, Wang YX, Zhang YK, Pu YM, Tang EY (2014) GSTM1 null polymorphisms and oral cancer risk: a meta-analysis. Tumor Biol 35:287–293

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Zhuo W-L, Zhang YS, Wang Y, Zhuo XL, Zhu B, Cai L, Chen ZT (2009) Association studies of CYP1A1 and GSTM1 polymorphisms with esophageal cancer risk: evidence-based meta-analyses. Arch Med Res 40:169–179

    CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

We are highly thankful to Dr. Ahmad Waqas for his assistance in reviewing and providing valuable input in this review article.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Jabir Hussain Syed.

Ethics declarations

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that there is no conflict of interest.

Additional information

Responsible editor: Philippe Garrigues

Publisher’s note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Rehman, M.Y.A., Taqi, M.M., Hussain, I. et al. Elevated exposure to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) may trigger cancers in Pakistan: an environmental, occupational, and genetic perspective. Environ Sci Pollut Res 27, 42405–42423 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-020-09088-2

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-020-09088-2

Keywords

Navigation