Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

A Longitudinal Study of Language Trajectories and Treatment Outcomes of Early Intensive Behavioral Intervention for Autism

  • Original Paper
  • Published:
Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

The present study examined language trajectories and placement outcomes for children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) receiving early intensive behavioral intervention (EIBI). Language measures were collected at baseline and 6, 12, 18, 24, and 36 months or until exit from EIBI in 131 children with ASD. Growth models estimated overall and subgroup language trajectories. Overall, children receiving EIBI showed substantial increases in language relative to normative expectations. Earlier age at EIBI start, higher baseline cognitive function, and lower baseline ASD severity predicted better language trajectories. Although there was significant variability in language trajectories and educational outcomes, most children showed significant increases in language scores, relative to normative expectations. Additional research, in more representative samples, is needed to understand this variability.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Almirall, D., DiStefano, C., Chang, Y. C., Shire, S., Kaiser, A., Lu, X., et al. (2016). Longitudinal effects of adaptive interventions with a speech-generating device in minimally verbal children with ASD. Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology, 45(4), 442–456. https://doi.org/10.1080/15374416.2016.1138407.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bedford, R., Pickles, A., & Lord, C. (2016). Early gross motor skills predict the subsequent development of language in children with autism spectrum disorder. Autism Research, 9(9), 993–1001. https://doi.org/10.1002/aur.1587.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ben-Itzchak, E., Watson, L. R., & Zachor, D. A. (2014). Cognitive ability is associated with different outcome trajectories in autism spectrum disorders. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 44(9), 2221–2229. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-014-2091-0.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ben-Itzchak, E., & Zachor, D. A. (2007). The effects of intellectual functioning and autism severity on outcome of early behavioral intervention for children with autism. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 28(3), 287–303. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ridd.2006.03.002.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bentler, P. M. (1988). Comparative fit indexes in structural equation models. Psychological Bulletin, 107, 238–246.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Berkowitz, S. A., Traore, C. Y., Singer, D. E., & Atlas, S. J. (2015). Evaluating area-based socioeconomic status indicators for monitoring disparities within health care systems: Results from a primary care network. Health Services Research, 50(2), 398–417. https://doi.org/10.1111/1475-6773.12229.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bolte, S., Poustka, F., & Constantino, J. N. (2008). Assessing autistic traits: Cross-cultural validation of the social responsiveness scale (SRS). Autism Research, 1(6), 354–363. https://doi.org/10.1002/aur.49.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bopp, K. D., Mirenda, P., & Zumbo, B. D. (2009). Behavior predictors of language development over 2 years in children with autism spectrum disorders. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 52(5), 1106–1120. https://doi.org/10.1044/1092-4388(2009/07-0262).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bradshaw, J., Koegel, L. K., & Koegel, R. L. (2017). Improving functional language and social motivation with a parent-mediated intervention for toddlers with autism spectrum disorder. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 47(8), 2443–2458. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-017-3155-8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chlebowski, C., Green, J. A., Barton, M. L., & Fein, D. (2010). Using the childhood autism rating scale to diagnose autism spectrum disorders. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 40(7), 787–799. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-009-0926-x.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Cohen, H., Amerine-Dickens, M., & Smith, T. (2006). Early intensive behavioral treatment: replication of the UCLA model in a community setting. Journal of Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics, 27(2 Suppl), S145–S155.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Constantino, J. N., & Gruber, C. P. (2012). The social responsiveness scale manual, second edition (SRS-2). Torrance: Western Psychological Services.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cooper, J., Heron, T., & Heward, W. (2007). Applied behavior analysis (2nd ed.). Upper Saddle River: Pearson/Merrill-Prentice Hall.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dawson, G., Rogers, S., Munson, J., Smith, M., Winter, J., Greenson, J., et al. (2010). Randomized, controlled trial of an intervention for toddlers with autism: the Early Start Denver Model. Pediatrics, 125(1), e17-23. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2009-0958.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dunlap, G. (1984). The influence of task variation and maintenance tasks on the learning and affect of autistic children. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 37(1), 41–64.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dunn, L. M., & Dunn, D. M. (2007). Peabody picture vocabulary test (4th ed.). Bloomington: NCS Pearson Inc.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dunn, L. M., & Dunn, L. M. (1997). Examiner’s manual for the peabody picture vocabulary test (3rd ed.). Circle Pines: American Guidance Service.

    Google Scholar 

  • Eikeseth, S., Smith, T., Jahr, E., & Eldevik, S. (2002). Intensive behavioral treatment at school for 4- to 7-year-old children with autism. A 1-year comparison controlled study. Behavior Modification, 26(1), 49–68. Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&dopt=Citation&list_uids=11799654.

  • Eldevik, S., Hastings, R. P., Hughes, J. C., Jahr, E., Eikeseth, S., & Cross, S. (2009). Meta-analysis of early intensive behavioral intervention for children with autism. Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology, 38(3), 439–450. https://doi.org/10.1080/15374410902851739.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Esler, A. N., Bal, V. H., Guthrie, W., Wetherby, A., Ellis Weismer, S., & Lord, C. (2015). The autism diagnostic observation schedule, toddler module: Standardized severity scores. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 45(9), 2704–2720. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-015-2432-7.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Etscheidt, S. (2003). An analysis of legal hearings and cases related to individualized education programs for children with autism. Research and Practice for Persons with Severe Disabilities, 28, 51–69.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fountain, C., Winter, A. S., & Bearman, P. S. (2012). Six developmental trajectories characterize children with autism. Pediatrics, 129(5), e1112-1120. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2011-1601.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Garfin, D. G., McCallon, D., & Cox, R. (1988). Validity and reliability of the Childhood Autism Rating Scale with autistic adolescents. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 18(3), 367–378. Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&dopt=Citation&list_uids=3170455.

  • Gartlehner, G., Hansen, R. A., Nissman, D., Lohr, K. N., & Carey, T. S. (2006). A simple and valid tool distinguished efficacy from effectiveness studies. Journal of Clinical Epidemiology, 59(10), 1040–1048. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclinepi.2006.01.011.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Georgiades, S., & Kasari, C. (2018). Reframing optimal outcomes in autism. JAMA Pediatrics, 172(8), 716–717. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapediatrics.2018.1016.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gotham, K., Pickles, A., & Lord, C. (2009). Standardizing ADOS scores for a measure of severity in autism spectrum disorders. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 39(5), 693–705. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-008-0674-3.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Granpeesheh, D., Tarbox, J., & Dixon, D. R. (2009). Applied behavior analytic interventions for children with autism: a description and review of treatment research. Annals of Clinical Psychiatry, 21(3), 162–173.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Green, J., Pickles, A., Pasco, G., Bedford, R., Wan, M. W., Elsabbagh, M., et al. (2017). Randomised trial of a parent-mediated intervention for infants at high risk for autism: Longitudinal outcomes to age 3 years. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines, 58(12), 1330–1340. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.12728.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hardan, A. Y., Gengoux, G. W., Berquist, K. L., Libove, R. A., Ardel, C. M., Phillips, J., et al. (2015). A randomized controlled trial of Pivotal Response Treatment Group for parents of children with autism. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 56(8), 884–892. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.12354.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Howard, J. S., Sparkman, C. R., Cohen, H. G., Green, G., & Stanislaw, H. (2005). A comparison of intensive behavior analytic and eclectic treatments for young children with autism. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 26(4), 359–383. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ridd.2004.09.005.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Howlin, P., Magiati, I., & Charman, T. (2009). Systematic review of early intensive behavior interventions for children with autism. American Journal of Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities, 114(1), 23–41.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • IBM Corp. (2018). IBM SPSS statistics for windows. Version 26.0. New York: IBM Corp.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ingersoll, B. (2010). Pilot randomized controlled trial of Reciprocal Imitation Training for teaching elicited and spontaneous imitation to children with autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 40(9), 1154–1160. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-010-0966-2.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Ingersoll, B., Schreibman, L., & Stahmer, A. (2001). Brief report: Differential treatment outcomes for children with autistic spectrum disorder based on level of peer social avoidance. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 31(3), 343–349.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kasari, C., Paparella, T., Freeman, S., & Jahromi, L. B. (2008). Language outcome in autism: Randomized comparison of joint attention and play interventions. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 76(1), 125–137. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-006X.76.1.125.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Koegel, L., Koegel, J., Harrower, J., & Carter, C. (1999). Pivotal response intervention I: Overview of approach. The Journal of the Association for Persons with Severe Handicaps, 24(3), 174–185.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Koegel, R. L., O’Dell, M. C., & Koegel, L. K. (1987). A natural language teaching paradigm for nonverbal autistic children. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 17(2), 187–200.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Koegel, R. L., & Williams, J. A. (1980). Direct versus indirect response-reinforcer relationships in teaching autistic children. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 8(4), 537–547.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Landa, R. (2007). Early communication development and intervention for children with autism. Mental Retardation and Developmental Disabilities Research, 13(1), 16–25. https://doi.org/10.1002/mrdd.20134.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Landa, R. J., & Kalb, L. G. (2012). Long-term outcomes of toddlers with autism spectrum disorders exposed to short-term intervention. Pediatrics, 130(Suppl 2), S186–S190. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2012-0900Q.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lord, C., Luyster, R., Guthrie, W., & Pickles, A. (2012a). Patterns of developmental trajectories in toddlers with autism spectrum disorder. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 80(3), 477–489. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0027214.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Lord, C., Rutter, M., DiLavore, P. C., & Risi, S. (2002). Autism diagnostic observation schedule: ADOS manual. Torrance: Western Psychological Services.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lord, C., Rutter, M., DiLavore, P. C., Risi, S., Gotham, K., & Bishop, S. L. (2012b). Autism diagnostic observation schedule, second edition (ADOS-2) manual (part 1): Modules 1–4. Torrance: Western Psychological Services.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lovaas, O. I. (1987). Behavioral treatment and normal educational and intellectual functioning in young autistic children. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 55, 3–9.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Luyster, R., Gotham, K., Guthrie, W., Coffing, M., Petrak, R., Pierce, K., et al. (2009). The Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule-toddler module: A new module of a standardized diagnostic measure for autism spectrum disorders. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 39(9), 1305–1320. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-009-0746-z.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Mahoney, G., & Perales, F. (2003). Relationship-focused intervention to enhance the social-emotional functioning of young children with autism spectrum disorders. Topics in Early Childhood Special Education, 23(2), 74–86.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McDaniel, J., Yoder, P., Woynaroski, T., & Watson, L. R. (2018). Predicting receptive-expressive vocabulary discrepancies in preschool children with autism spectrum disorder. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 61(6), 1426–1439. https://doi.org/10.1044/2018_JSLHR-L-17-0101.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • McEachin, J. J., Smith, T., & Lovaas, O. I. (1993). Long-term outcome for children with autism who received early intensive behavioral treatment. American Journal of Mental Retardation, 97(4), 359–372; discussion 373–391. Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&dopt=Citation&list_uids=8427693.

  • Mohammadzaheri, F., Koegel, L. K., Rezaee, M., & Rafiee, S. M. (2014). A randomized clinical trial comparison between pivotal response treatment (PRT) and structured applied behavior analysis (ABA) intervention for children with autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 44(11), 2769–2777. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-014-2137-3.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Molloy, C. A., Murray, D. S., Akers, R., Mitchell, T., & Manning-Courtney, P. (2011). Use of the autism diagnostic observation schedule (ADOS) in a clinical setting. Autism, 15(2), 143–162. https://doi.org/10.1177/1362361310379241.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mullen, E. M. (1995). Mullen scales of early learning. Circle Pines: American Guidance Service Inc.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mundy, P., & Crowson, M. (1997). Joint attention and early social communication: implications for research on intervention with autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 27(6), 653–676. Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&dopt=Citation&list_uids=9455727.

  • Mundy, P., Sigman, M., & Kasari, C. (1990). A longitudinal study of joint attention and language development in autistic children. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 20(1), 115–128.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Muthén, L. K., & Muthén, B. O. (1998–2012). Mplus user’s guide. Seventh Edition. (Seventh ed.). Muthén & Muthén.

  • National Research Council, & Division of Behavioral and Social Sciences Education. (2001). Educating children with autism. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nylund, K. L., Asparouhov, T., & Muthén, B. O. (2007). Deciding on the number of classes in latent class analysis and growth mixture modeling: A Monte Carlo simulation study. Structural Equation Modeling, 14(4), 535–569.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ospina, M. B., Krebs Seida, J., Clark, B., Karkhaneh, M., Hartling, L., Tjosvold, L., et al. (2008). Behavioural and developmental interventions for autism spectrum disorder: A clinical systematic review. PLoS ONE, 3(11), e3755. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0003755.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Peters-Scheffer, N., Didden, R., Korzilius, H., & Matson, J. (2012). Cost comparison of early intensive behavioral intervention and treatment as usual for children with autism spectrum disorder in The Netherlands. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 33(6), 1763–1772. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ridd.2012.04.006.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Peters-Scheffer, N., Didden, R., Korzilius, H., & Sturmey, P. (2011). A meta-analytic study on the effectiveness of comprehensive ABA-based early intervention programs for children with Autism Spectrum Disorders. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders, 5(1), 60–69.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Raftery, A. (1995). Bayesian model selection in social research. Sociological Methodology, 25, 111–163.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Risi, S., Lord, C., Gotham, K., Corsello, C., Chrysler, C., Szatmari, P., et al. (2006). Combining information from multiple sources in the diagnosis of autism spectrum disorders. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 45(9), 1094–1103.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Robins, D. L., Adamson, L. B., Barton, M., Connell, J. E., Jr., Dumont-Mathieu, T., Dworkin, P. H., et al. (2016). Universal autism screening for toddlers: Recommendations at odds. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 46(5), 1880–1882. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-016-2697-5.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Rogers, S. J., Estes, A., Lord, C., Munson, J., Rocha, M., Winter, J., et al. (2019). A multisite randomized controlled two-phase trial of the early start Denver model compared to treatment as usual. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaac.2019.01.004.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Rogers, S. J., Vismara, L., Wagner, A. L., McCormick, C., Young, G., & Ozonoff, S. (2014). Autism treatment in the first year of life: A pilot study of infant start, a parent-implemented intervention for symptomatic infants. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 44(12), 2981–2995. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-014-2202-y.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Sallows, G. O., & Graupner, T. D. (2005). Intensive behavioral treatment for children with autism: Four-year outcome and predictors. American Journal of Mental Retardation, 110(6), 417–438. https://doi.org/10.1352/0895-8017(2005)110[417:IBTFCW]2.0.CO;2.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schopler, E., Van Bourgondien, M., Wellman, G., & Love, S. (2010). Childhood autism rating scale (2nd ed.). Torrance: Western Psychological Services.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schreibman, L. (2005). The science and fiction of autism. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schreibman, L., Dawson, G., Stahmer, A. C., Landa, R., Rogers, S. J., McGee, G. G., et al. (2015). Naturalistic developmental behavioral interventions: Empirically validated treatments for autism spectrum disorder. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 45(8), 2411–2428. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-015-2407-8.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Sherer, M. R., & Schreibman, L. (2005). Individual behavioral profiles and predictors of treatment effectiveness for children with autism. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 73(3), 525–538. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-006X.73.3.525.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Smith, T., Groen, A. D., & Wynn, J. W. (2000). Randomized trial of intensive early intervention for children with pervasive developmental disorder. American Journal of Mental Retardation, 105, 269–285.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Smith, T., Klorman, R., & Mruzek, D. W. (2015). Predicting outcome of community-based early intensive behavioral intervention for children with autism. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 43(7), 1271–1282. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-015-0002-2.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tager-Flusberg, H., Paul, R., & Lord, C. (2005). Language and communication in autism. In F. Volkmar (Ed.), Handbook of autism and pervasive developmental disorders. Hoboken: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ventola, P. E., Kleinman, J., Pandey, J., Barton, M., Allen, S., Green, J., et al. (2006a). Agreement among four diagnostic instruments for autism spectrum disorders in toddlers. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 36, 839–847.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ventola, P. E., Kleinman, J., Pandey, J., Barton, M., Allen, S., Green, J., et al. (2006b). Agreement among four diagnostic instruments for autism spectrum disorders in toddlers. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 36(7), 839–847. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-006-0128-8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Vivanti, G., Prior, M., Williams, K., & Dissanayake, C. (2014). Predictors of outcomes in autism early intervention: Why don’t we know more? Frontiers in Pediatrics, 2, 58. https://doi.org/10.3389/fped.2014.00058.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • von Elm, E., Altman, D. G., Egger, M., Pocock, S. J., Gotzsche, P. C., Vandenbroucke, J. P., & Initiative, S. (2007). The strengthening the reporting of observational studies in epidemiology (STROBE) statement: Guidelines for reporting observational studies. Epidemiology, 18(6), 800–804. https://doi.org/10.1097/EDE.0b013e3181577654.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Warren, Z., McPheeters, M. L., Sathe, N., Foss-Feig, J. H., Glasser, A., & Veenstra-Vanderweele, J. (2011). A systematic review of early intensive intervention for autism spectrum disorders. Pediatrics, 127(5), e1303-1311. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2011-0426.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wechsler, D. (2002). The Wechsler preschool and primary scale of intelligence, third edition (WPPSI-III). San Antonio: The Psychological Corporation.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wechsler, D. (2012). Wechsler preschool and primary scale of intelligence (4th ed.). San Antonio: The Psychological Corporation.

    Google Scholar 

  • Williams, K. (1997). Expressive vocabulary test. London: Pearson Education Inc.

    Google Scholar 

  • Williams, K. T. (2007). Expressive vocabulary test, second edition (EVT-2). Bloomington: NCS Pearson Inc.

    Google Scholar 

  • Yoder, P., Watson, L. R., & Lambert, W. (2015). Value-added predictors of expressive and receptive language growth in initially nonverbal preschoolers with autism spectrum disorders. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 45(5), 1254–1270. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-014-2286-4.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Zimmerman, I. L., Steiner, V. G., & Pond, E. (2011). Preschool language scales-fifth edition (PLS-5). London: Pearson.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

We are grateful to the participants in this study and thank our clinical research staff for their data collection and data reduction.

Funding

This study was made possible by a generous donation from the Stephan and Allison Cole Family Research Fund (to TWF). Dr. Frazier’s participation was also supported by Autism Speaks and the Hartwell Foundation. The funding source had no role in the design, conduct, analysis, interpretation, or writing for the present manuscript.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Center for Autism and Genomic Medicine Institute, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, OH, USA

    Thomas W. Frazier

  2. Autism Speaks, New York, NY, USA

    Thomas W. Frazier

  3. Department of Psychology, John Carroll University, Cleveland, OH, USA

    Thomas W. Frazier

  4. Center for Autism and Caregiver Experience, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, OH, USA

    Eric W. Klingemier

  5. Department of Health Psychology, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO, USA

    Christa J. Anderson

  6. Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA

    Grace W. Gengoux & Antonio Y. Hardan

  7. Departments of Psychology and Neuroscience and Psychiatry, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA

    Eric A. Youngstrom

Authors
  1. Thomas W. Frazier
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Eric W. Klingemier
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Christa J. Anderson
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Grace W. Gengoux
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Eric A. Youngstrom
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  6. Antonio Y. Hardan
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Contributions

TWF had full access to all the data in the study and takes responsibility for the integrity of the data and the accuracy of the data analysis. TWF was responsible for study concept and design, as well as the acquisition of data. TWF and EAY were responsible for statistical analysis and all authors were responsible for interpretation of the data. TWF drafted the initial manuscript and all authors were responsible for critical revision of the manuscript. All authors provided final approval of the manuscript.

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Thomas W. Frazier.

Ethics declarations

Conflict of interest

TWF has received funding or research support from, acted as a consultant to, received travel support from, and/or received a speaker’s honorarium from Quadrant Biosciences, Impel NeuroPharma, F. Hoffmann-La Roche AG Pharmaceuticals, the Cole Family Research Fund, Simons Foundation, Ingalls Foundation, Forest Laboratories, Ecoeos, IntegraGen, Kugona LLC, Shire Development, Bristol-Myers Squibb, Roche Pharma, National Institutes of Health, and the Brain and Behavior Research Foundation and has an investor stake in Autism EYES LLC. EWK has received support from Kugona LLC. EAY has consulted with Pearson, Lundbeck, Janssen, Joe Startup Technologies, and Western Psychological Services about psychological assessment, and received royalties from the American Psychological Association and Guilford Press. AYH has received research funding from Forest Pharmaceuticals and Bristol Myers Squibb and is a consultant to IntegraGen. GWG has consulted to Autism Speaks.

Ethical Approval

This project was a secondary analysis of clinical data collected as part of routine practice. The local institutional review board reviewed and approved the creation of a database containing the clinical data for future research use including the analyses conducted for this study.

Informed Consent

As the data were collected as part of routine clinical practice, consent was not obtained but all patients at the site provide consent for clinical data collection as part of their clinic visit. The authors certify that the study was performed in accordance with the ethical standards as laid down in the 1964 Declaration of Helsinki and its later amendments.

Additional information

Publisher's Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Supplementary Information

Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.

Supplementary file1 (DOCX 45 KB)

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Frazier, T.W., Klingemier, E.W., Anderson, C.J. et al. A Longitudinal Study of Language Trajectories and Treatment Outcomes of Early Intensive Behavioral Intervention for Autism. J Autism Dev Disord 51, 4534–4550 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-021-04900-5

Download citation

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-021-04900-5

Keywords

Search

Navigation