Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Broader Autism Phenotype and Nonverbal Sensitivity: Evidence for an Association in the General Population

  • Original Paper
  • Published:
Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

This study examined the relationship between characteristics of the Broader Autism Phenotype (BAP) and nonverbal sensitivity, the ability to interpret nonverbal aspects of communication, in a non-clinical sample of college students. One hundred and two participants completed a self-report measure of the BAP, the Autism Spectrum Quotient (AQ), and two tests of nonverbal sensitivity, the Test of Nonverbal Cue Knowledge (TONCK), and the Diagnostic Analysis of Nonverbal Accuracy 2 (DANVA2). AQ score was correlated with TONCK performance and number of errors on the adult faces subtest of the DANVA2, but not adult paralanguage or postures. These findings suggest that characteristics of ASD in the general population are associated with differences in both explicit and implicit knowledge of nonverbal cues.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3

Similar content being viewed by others

Notes

  1. Unlike previous reports suggesting a normal distribution of AQ scores in the general population (Hoekstra et al. 2008; Hurst et al. 2007), scores on the AQ in our sample were slightly positively skewed. This may be due to sampling error given our smaller sample size (102 participants compared to >900 participants in previous reports).

  2. Even if we throw out all 12 participants who scored more than 1.5 SD above the mean on the AQ (>24), our main findings remain significant. The likelihood that more than this number of high scoring participants had a first degree relative with autism is very small.

References

  • Adolphs, R., Tranel, D., Hamann, S., Young, A. W., Calder, A. J., Phelps, E. A., et al. (1999). Recognition of facial emotion in nine individuals with bilateral amygdala damage. Neuropsychologia, 37, 1111–1117.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Argyle, M. (1988). Bodily communication (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Methuen & Co.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ashwin, C., Chapman, E., Colle, L., & Baron-Cohen, S. (2006). Impaired recognition of negative basic emotions in autism: a test of the amygdala theory. Social Neuroscience, 1(3–4), 349–363.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • American Psychiatric Association. (2000). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders, text revision (4th ed.). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Austin, E. J. (2005). Personality correlates of the broader autism phenotype as assessed by the Autism Spectrum Quotient (AQ). Personality and Individual Differences, 38(2), 451–460.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Baron-Cohen, S., Bolton, P., Wheelwright, S., Scahill, V., Short, L., Mead, G., et al. (1998). Autism occurs more often in families of physicists, engineers, and mathematicians. Autism, 2, 296–301.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Baron-Cohen, S., Wheelwright, S., Skinner, R., Martin, J., & Clubley, E. (2001). The Autism-Spectrum Quotient (AQ): Evidence from Asperger syndrome/high-functioning autism, males and females, scientists and mathematicians. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 31(1), 5–17.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Berument, S. K., Rutter, M., Lord, C., et al. (1999). Autism screening questionnaire: Diagnostic validity. British Journal of Psychiatry, 175, 444–451.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Best, C. S., Moffat, V. J., Power, M. J., Owens, D. G. C., & Johnstone, E. C. (2008). The Boundaries of the Cognitive phenotype of autism: Theory of mind, central coherence and ambiguous figure perception in young people with autistic traits. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 38, 840–847.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bishop, D. V. M., Maybery, M., Maley, A., Wong, D., Hill, W., & Hallmayer, J. (2004). Using self-report to identify the broad phenotype in parents of children with autistic spectrum disorders: A study using the Autism-Spectrum Quotient. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 45(8), 1431–1436.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bolton, P., Macdonald, H., Pickles, A., Rios, P., Goode, S., Crowson, M., et al. (1994). A case-control family history study of autism. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 35, 877–900.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Carter, A. S., Orstein Davis, N., Klin, A., & Volkmar, F. R. (2005). Social development in autism. In F. Volkmar, A. Klin, R. Paul, & D. Cohen (Eds.), Handbook of autism and pervasive developmental disorders, volume 1: Diagnosis, development, neurobiology, and behavior (pp. 312–334). New York, NY: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Golan, O., Baron-Cohen, S., & Hill, J. (2006). The Cambridge Mindreading (CAM) Face-Voice Battery: Testing complex emotion recognition in adults with and without Asperger Syndrome. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 36(2), 169–183.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hall, J. A. (2001). The PONS test and the psychometric approach to measuring interpersonal sensitivity. In J. A. Hall & F. J. Bernieri (Eds.), Interpersonal sensitivity: Theory and measurement (pp. 143–160). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hall, J. A., & Bernieri, F. J. (2001). Interpersonal sensitivity: Theory and measurement. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Happé, F., Frith, U., & Briskman, J. (2001). Exploring the cognitive phenotype of autism: Weak “central coherence” in parents and siblings of children with autism: I. Experimental tests. The Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines, 42(03), 299–307.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hoekstra, R. A., Bartels, M., Cath, D. C., & Boomsma, D. I. (2008). Factor structure, reliability, and criterion validity of the Autism-Spectrum Quotient (AQ): A study in Dutch population and patient groups. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 38, 1555–1566.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hoekstra, R. A., Bartels, M., Verweij, C. H. J., & Boomsma, D. I. (2007). Heritability of autistic traits in the general population. Archives of Pediatric and Adolescent Medicine, 161, 372–377.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hughes, C., Leboyer, M., & Bouvard, M. (1997). Executive function in parents of children with autism. Psychological Medicine, 27(1), 209–220.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hurley, R. S. E., Losh, M., Parlier, M., Reznick, J. S., & Piven, J. (2007). The broad autism phenotype questionnaire. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 37, 1679–1690.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hurst, R. M., Mitchell, J. T., Kimbrel, N. A., Kwapil, T. K., & Nelson-Gray, R. O. (2007). Examination of the reliability and factor structure of the Autism Spectrum Quotient (AQ) in a non-clinical sample. Personality and Individual Differences, 43(7), 1938–1949.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jobe, L. E., & Williams, W. S. (2007). Loneliness, social relationships, and a broader autism phenotype in college students. Personality and Individual Differences, 42(8), 1479–1489.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kunihira, Y., Senju, A., Dairoku, H., Wakabayashi, A., & Hasegawa, T. (2006). ‘Autistic’ traits in non-autistic Japanese populations: Relationships with personality traits and cognitive ability. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 36(4), 553–566.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Landa, R., Piven, J., Wzorek, M. M., Gayle, J. O., Chase, G. A., & Folstein, S. E. (1992). Social language use in parents of autistic individuals. Psychological Medicine, 22(1), 245–254.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Maxim, L. A., & Nowicki, S. J. (2003). Developmental associations between nonverbal ability and social competence. Facta universitatis-series: Philosophy, Sociology & Psychology, 2(10), 745–758.

    Google Scholar 

  • McClure, E. B., & Nowicki, S., Jr. (2004). Associations between social anxiety and nonverbal processing skill in preadolescent boys and girls. Journal of Nonverbal Behavior, 25, 3–9.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Murphy, M., Bolton, P., Pickles, A., Fombonne, E., Piven, J., & Rutter, M. (2000). Personality traits of the relatives of autistic probands. Psychological Medicine, 30(6), 1411–1424.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nowicki, S., Jr. (1995). A study of the DANVA-AP in college students. Unpublished manuscript. Department of Psychology, Emory University, Atlanta, GA.

  • Nowicki, S., Jr, & Carton, J. (1993). The measurement of emotional intensity from facial expressions: The DANVA FACES 2. Journal of Social Psychology, 133, 749–750.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nowicki, S., Jr, & Duke, M. P. (1994). Individual differences in the nonverbal communication of affect: The diagnostic analysis of nonverbal accuracy scale. Journal of Nonverbal Behavior, 18(1), 9–35.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nowicki, S., Jr, & Duke, M. P. (2001). Nonverbal receptivity: The Diagnostic Analysis of Nonverbal Accuracy (DANVA). In J. Hall & F. Bernieri (Eds.), Interpersonal Sensitivity: Theory and Measurement (pp. 183–198). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nowicki, S., Jr. (2006). Manual for the receptive tests of the Diagnostic Analysis of Nonverbal Accuracy 2 (DANVA2).

  • Ozonoff, S., Rogers, S. J., Farnham, J. M., & Pennington, B. F. (1993). Can standard measures identify subclinical markers of autism? Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 23(3), 429–441.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Palermo, M. T., Pasqualetti, P., Barbati, G., Intelligente, F., & Rossini, P. M. (2006). Recognition of schematic facial displays of emotion in parents of children with autism. Autism, 10(4), 353–364.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pitterman, H., & Nowicki, S., Jr. (2004). A test of the ability to identify emotion in human standing and sitting postures: The Diagnostic Analysis of Nonverbal Accuracy-2 Posture Test (DANVA2-POS). Genetic, Social, and General Psychology Monographs, 130(2), 146–162.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Piven, J., Palmer, P., Jacobi, D., Childress, D., & Arndt, S. (1997). Broader Autism Phenotype: Evidence from a family history study of multiple-incidence autism families. American Journal of Psychiatry, 154, 185–190.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rajendran, G., & Mitchell, P. (2007). Cognitive theories of autism. Developmental Review, 27(2), 224–260.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Riggio, R. E. (2006). Nonverbal skills and abilities. In V. Manusov & M. L. Patterson (Eds.), The SAGE handbook of nonverbal communication (pp. 79–95). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rosenthal, R., Hall, J. A., DiMatteo, M. R., Rogers, P. L., & Archer, D. (1979). Sensitivity to nonverbal communication: The PONS Test. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rosip, J. C., & Hall, J. A. (2004). Knowledge of nonverbal cues, gender, and nonverbal decoding accuracy. Journal of Nonverbal Behavior, 28(4), 267–286.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Santangelo, S. L., & Folstein, S. E. (1995). Social deficits in the families of autistic probands. American Journal of Human Genetics, 57, 89.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shean, G., Bell, E., & Camerson, C. D. (2007). Recognition of nonverbal affect and schizotypy. The Journal of Psychology, 14, 281–291.

    Google Scholar 

  • Skuse, D. H., Mandy, W. P. L., & Scourfield, J. (2005). Measuring autistic traits: Heritability, reliability and validity of the Social and Communication Disorders Checklist. The British Journal of Psychiatry, 187(6), 568–572.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wakabayashi, A., Baron-Cohen, S., & Wheelwright, S. (2006). Are autistic traits an independent personality dimension? A study of the Autism-Spectrum Quotient (AQ) and the NEO-PI-R. Personality and Individual Differences, 41(5), 873–883.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Woodbury-Smith, M. R., Robinson, J., Wheelwright, S., & Baron-Cohen, S. (2005). Screening adults for Asperger syndrome using the AQ: A preliminary study of its diagnostic validity in clinical practice. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 35(3), 331–335.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

This study was supported by a grant from Autism Speaks to the author. I would like to thank Carley Jewell and Steve Welsh for their assistance in data collection and Chris Hopwood and Mark Becker for their helpful comments on an earlier draft.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Psychology, Michigan State University, 105B Psychology Building, East Lansing, MI, 48824, USA

    Brooke Ingersoll

Authors
  1. Brooke Ingersoll
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Brooke Ingersoll.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Ingersoll, B. Broader Autism Phenotype and Nonverbal Sensitivity: Evidence for an Association in the General Population. J Autism Dev Disord 40, 590–598 (2010). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-009-0907-0

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-009-0907-0

Keywords

Search

Navigation