Abstract
An obvious need for an updated and comprehensive study prompted this investigation of the complex of environmental costs resulting from the nation’s dependence on pesticides. Included in this assessment of an estimated $10 billion in environmental and societal damages are analyses of: pesticide impacts on public health; livestock and livestock product losses; increased control expenses resulting from pesticide-related destruction of natural enemies and from the development of pesticide resistance in pests; crop pollination problems and honeybee losses; crop and crop product losses; bird, fish, and other wildlife losses; and governmental expenditures to reduce the environmental and social costs of the recommended application of pesticides.
The major economic and environmental losses due to the application of pesticides in the USA were: public health, $1.1 billion year−1; pesticide resistance in pests, $1.5 billion; crop losses caused by pesticides, $1.4 billion; bird losses due to pesticides, $2.2 billion; and groundwater contamination, $2.0 billion.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
ABCBirds: (2003). Pesticides and Birds Campaign. http://www.abcbirds.org/pesticides/pesticideindex.htm (February 3, 2003)
N.B Akesson W.E. Yates (1984) ‘Physical parameters affecting aircraft spray application’ W.Y. Garner J. Harvey (Eds) Chemical and Biological Controls in Forestry. ␣ Washington, DC 95–111
Asia Times: (2001). India/Pakistan. http://www.atimes.com/ind-pak/CF14Df01.html (February 3, 2003)
R.M Atlas R. Bartha (1987) Microbial Biology: Fundamentals and Applications EditionNumber2 Benjamin Cummings Co Menlo Park, CA.
Baker, B.P., Benbrook, C.M., Groth, G, Benbrook, K.L.: 2003, http://www.consumersunion.org/food/orgnicsumm.htm (January 19, 2003)
R. Balcomb (1986) ArticleTitle‘Songbird carcasses disappear rapidly from agricultural fields’ Auk. 103 817–821
Barometer: (1991). Too much beer kills thousands’). Oregon State University Barometer. 14 May
C.J. Barnes T.L Lavy J.D. Mattice (1987) ArticleTitle‘Exposure of non-applicator personnel and adjacent areas to aerially applied propanil’ Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 39 126–133 Occurrence Handle10.1007/BF01691800 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DyaL2sXkslansbo%3D Occurrence Handle3607310
C. Boutin K.E Freemark D.E. Kirdk (1999) ArticleTitle‘Spatial and temporal patterns of bird use of farmland in southern Ontario’ Can. Field Naturalist. 113 IssueID3 430–460
Burgett M.: (2000). Pacific Northwest Honey Bee Pollination Survey’, http://www.nhb/org.download/2000polin.pdf (January 20, 2003)
E.A. Carlsen A. Giwercman N Kielding N.E. Skakkebaek (1992) ArticleTitle‘Evidence for decreasing quality of semen during the past 15 years’ Br. Med. J. 305 609–613 Occurrence Handle1:STN:280:ByyD3cnktFE%3D
C. Carrasco-Tauber (1989) Pesticide Productivity Revisited. M.S. Thesis University of Massachusetts Amherst, MA.
CEQ: (1980). The Global 2000 Report to the President of the US Entering the 21st Century. New York, Pergamon Press
T. Colborn J.P Myers InstitutionalAuthorNameJ.P D. Dumanoski (1996) Our Stolen Future: How We Are Threatening Our Fertility, Intelligence, and Survival A Scientific Detective Story New York, Dutton
Cornell. (2003). Common Pesticides in Groundwater. http: //pmep.cce.cornell.edu/facts-slides-self/slide-set/gwater09.html (January 21, 2003)
CWS: (2003). Pesticides and Wild Birds, Canadian Wildlife Service, http: //www.cws-scf.ec.gc.ca/hww-fap/hww-fap.cfm?ID_species-90&lang=e (February 3, 2003)
P. D’Anieri D.M Leslie M.L. McCormack (1987) ArticleTitle‘Small mammals in glyphosphate-treated clearcuts in Northern Maine’ Can. Field Naturalist. 101 547–550
J. Dobbins (1986) Resources Damage Assessment of the T/V Puerto-Rican Oil Spill Incident James Dobbins Report to NOAA Sanctuary Program Division Washington, DC
C.A Edwards J.R. Lofty (1982) ArticleTitle‘Nitrogenous fertilizers and earthworm populations in agricultural soils’ Soil Biol. Biochem. 14 515–521 Occurrence Handle10.1016/0038-0717(82)90112-2
J.E. Elliot Norstrom R.J Keith J.A. (1988) ArticleTitle‘Organochlorines and eggshell thinning in Northern Gannets (Sula bassanus) from Eastern Canada (1968–1984)’ Environ. Poll 52 81–102 Occurrence Handle10.1016/0269-7491(88)90083-8
EPA: (1977). Minutes of Administrator’s Pesticide Policy Advisory Committee, Washington, DC, US Environmental Protection Agency
EPA: (1989). Carbofuran: A Special Review Technical Support Document. Washington, DC, US. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Pesticides and Toxic Substances,
EPA: (1990). National Pesticide Survey–Summary. Washington, DC, US Environmental Protection Agency.
EPA: (1992). Hired Farm Workers Health and Well-being at Risk. United States General Accounting Office Report to Congressional Requesters
FAO: (1988). Integrated Pest Management in Rice in Indonesia. Jakarta, Food and Agriculture Organization, United Nations
E.L. Flickinger K.A. King W.F Stout M.M. Mohn (1980) ArticleTitle‘Wildlife hazards from furadan 3G applications to rice in Texas’ J. Wildlife Manage. 44 190–197 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DyaL38XksFSru7w%3D
E.L. Flickinger G. Juenger T.J. Roffe M.R Smith R.J. Irwin (1991) ArticleTitle‘Poisoning Canada geese in Texas by parathion sprayed for control of Russian wheat aphid’ J. WildLife Dis. 27 265–268 Occurrence Handle1:STN:280:By6B1MrisFQ%3D
Groth, E., Benbrook, C.M, Lutx, K. (1999). Do You Know What You’re Eating? An Analysis of US Government Data on Pesticide Residues in Foods. http: //www/consumers union.org/food/do_you_know2.htm (January 19, 2003)
N.G. Hairston F.E Smith L.B. Slobodkin (1960) ArticleTitle‘Community structure, population control and competition’ Amer. Nat. 94 421–425 Occurrence Handle10.1086/282146
F.R. Hall (1991) ‘Pesticide application technology and integrated pest management (IPM)’ D. Pimentel (Eds) Handbook of Pest Management in Agriculture. Vol. II CRC Press Boca Raton, FL 135–170
Hanner, D. (1984). Herbicide drift prompts state inquiry. Dallas Morning News. July 25
A.R. Hardy (1990) ‘Estimating exposure: the identification of species at risk and routes of exposure’ L. Somerville C.H. Walker (Eds) Pesticide Effects on Terrestrial Wildlife. Taylor and Francis London 81–97
Harper C.R, Zilberman D. (1990). Pesticide regulation: problems in trading off economic benefits against health risks. In: Zilberman D., Siebert J.B. (ed). Economic Perspectives on Pesticide Use in California. pp. 181–208
K Hart D. Pimentel (2002) ‘Public health and costs of pesticides’ D. Pimentel (Eds) Encyclopedia of Pest Management. Marcel Dekker New York 677–679
Hebert, H.J.: 2003). EPA guidelines address kids, cancer risks’). Detroit Free Press. http: //www.freep.com/news/childrenfirst/risk4_20030304.htm (March 10, 2003)
Holmes, T., Neilsen, E, Lee, L. (1988). Managing Groundwater Contamination in Rural Areas: Rural Development Perspectives. Washington, DC, US Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Series
ICAITI: (1977). An Environmental and Economic Study of the Consequence of Pesticide Use in Central American Cotton Production. Guatemala City, Guatemala: Final Report, Central American Research Institute for Industry, United Nations Environment Program
Kaiser, J. (2003). Economics: How Much are Human Lives and Health Worth? www.rff.org/rff/News/Coverage/2003/March/How-Much-Are-Human-Lives-and-Health-Worth.cfm - 72k (September 3, 2003)
Malaria: (2000). Malaria in India. http: //www/brown.edu/Research/EnvStudies_Theses/full9900/creod/malaria_in_india.html (January 20, 2003)
Mazariegos, F. (1985). The Use of Pesticides in the Cultivation of Cotton in Central America. Guatemala. United Nations Environment Program, Industry and Environment, July/August/September
S. McCarthy (1993) ArticleTitle‘Congress takes a look at estrogenic pesticides and breast cancer’ J. Pesticide Reform. 13 IssueID4 25
J.G. Millar (1995) ArticleTitle‘Fish and Wildlife Service’s proposal to reclassify the bald eagle in most of the lower 48 states’ J. Raptor Res.. 29 IssueID1 71
P. Mineau (1988) ‘Avian mortality in agroecosystems. I. The case against granule insecticides in Canada’ M.P. Greaves B.D. Smith (Eds) Field Methods for the Environmental Effects of Pesticides. British Crop Protection Council (BPCP), Monograph 40. Thornton Health London 3–12
P. Mineau M.R. Fletcher L.C. Glaser N.J. Tomas C. Brassard L.K. Wilson J.E. Elliott L.A. Lyon C.H. Henny T Bolinger S.L. Porter (1999) ArticleTitle‘Poisoning of raptors with organophosphorus and carbamate pesticides with emphasis on Canada, US, and UK’ J. Raptor Res.. 33 IssueID1 1–37
E. Mussen (1990) ArticleTitle‘California crop pollination’ Gleanings in Bee Culture. 118 646–647
NAS: (1975). Pest Control: An Assessment of Present and Alternative Technologies. 4 volumes, Washington, DC, National Academy of Sciences
NAS: (1987). Regulating Pesticides in Food. Washington, DC, National Academy of Sciences
NAS: (1989). Alternative Agriculture. Washington, DC, National Academy of Sciences
National Animal Poison Control Centers: 2003, http: //www.canismajor.com/dog/poison.html (January 19, 2003)
National Residue Program: 2002, http: //www.fsis.usda.gov/OPHS/blue2002/- 8k (February 3, 2003)
I.N. Oka (1991) ArticleTitle‘Success and challenges of the Indonesian national integrated pest management program in the rice based cropping system’ Crop Protection. 10 163–165 Occurrence Handle10.1016/0261-2194(91)90037-R
I.N Oka D. Pimentel (1976) ArticleTitle‘Herbicide (2,4-D) increases insect and pathogen pests on corn’ Science. 193 239–240 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DyaE28XkvVynsLg%3D
Pan-UK: (2003). Current Pesticide Spectrum, Global Use and Major Concerns. http: //www.pan-uk.org/briefing/SIDA_Fil/Chap1.htm (January 18, 2003)
PCC: 2002). News Bites. http: //www.pccnaturalmarkets.com/sc/0205/newsbites.html (January 19, 2003)
D. Pimentel (1988) ArticleTitle‘Herbivore population feeding pressure on plant host: feedback evolution and host conservation’ Oikos. 53 289–302
D. Pimentel (1994) ArticleTitle‘Insect population responses to environmental stress and pollutants’ Environ. Rev. 2 IssueID1 1–15 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DyaK2cXms1aisbw%3D
D. Pimentel (1997) ‘Pest management in agriculture’ D. Pimentel (Eds) Techniques for Reducing Pesticide Use: Environmental and Economic Benefits. John Wiley & Sons Chichester, UK 1–11
D Pimentel A. Greiner (1997) ‘Environmental and socio-economic costs of pesticide use’ D. Pimentel (Eds) Techniques for Reducing Pesticide Use: Environmental and Economic Benefits. John Wiley & Sons Chichester, UK 51–78
D Pimentel K. Hart (2001) ‘Pesticide use: ethical, environmental, and public health implications’ W. Galston E. Shurr (Eds) New Dimensions in Bioethics: Science, Ethics and the Formulation of Public Policy. Kluwer Academic Publishers Boston, MA 79–108
D. Pimentel L. McLaughlin A. Zepp B. Latikan T. Kraus P. Kleinman F. Vancini W.J. Roach E. Graap W.S Keeton G. Selig (1991) ‘Environmental and economic impacts of reducing US agricultural pesticide use’ D. Pimentel (Eds) Handbook on Pest Management in Agriculture. CRC Press Boca Raton, FL 679–718
D. Pimentel U. Stachow D.A. Takacs H.W. Brubaker A.R. Dumas J.J. Meaney J.A.S. O’Neil D.E Onsi D.B. Corzilius (1992) ArticleTitle‘Conserving biological diversity in agricultural/forestry systems’ Bioscience. 42 354–362
D. Pimentel H. Acquay M. Biltonen P. Rice M. Silva J. Nelson V. Lipner S. Giordana A Horowitz M. D’Amore (1993a) ‘Assessment of environmental and economic impacts of pesticide use’ D. Pimentel H. Lehman (Eds) The Pesticide Question: Environment, Economics and Ethics. Chapman & Hall New York 47–84
D. Pimentel L. McLaughlin A. Zepp B. Lakitan T. Kraus P. Kleinman F. Vancini W.J. Roach E. Graap W.S Keeton G. Selig (1993) ArticleTitle‘Environmental and economic effects of reducing pesticide use in agriculture’ Agric. Ecosyst. Environ.. 46 IssueID1–4 273–288 Occurrence Handle10.1016/0167-8809(93)90030-S Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DyaK2cXht1Omur8%3D
D. Pimentel C. Wilson C. McCullum R. Huang P. Dwen J. Flack Q. Tran T Saltman B. Cliff (1997) ArticleTitle‘Economic and environmental benefits of biodiversity’ Bioscience. 47 IssueID11 747–757
D.A Potter S.K. Braman (1991) ArticleTitle‘Ecology and management of turfgrass insects’ Ann. Rev. Entomol. 36 383–406 Occurrence Handle10.1146/annurev.en.36.010191.002123
G.R. Potts (1986) The Partridge: Pesticides, Predation and Conservation Collins London.
V.R. Reddy D.N. Baker F.D Whisler R.E. Fye (1987) ArticleTitle‘Application of GOSSYM to yield decline in cotton. I. Systems analysis of effects of herbicides on growth, development and yield’ Agron. J. 79 42–47 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DyaL2sXpslOitA%3D%3D
R Repetto S.S. Baliga (1996) Pesticides and the Immune System: The Public Health Risks World Resources Institute Washington, DC.
E.D. Richter (2002) ‘Acute human pesticide poisonings’ D. Pimentel (Eds) Encyclopedia of Pest Management Dekker New York 3–6
W.B Stone P.B. Gradoni (1985) ArticleTitle‘Wildlife mortality related to the use of the pesticide diazinon’ Northeastern Environ. Sci. 4 30–38 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DyaL2MXkvF2qu70%3D
A Stringer C. Lyons (1974) ArticleTitle‘The effect of benomyl and thiophanate-methyl on earthworm populations in apple orchards’ Pesticide Sci. 5 189–196 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DyaE2cXksleit74%3D
Stuart S. (2003). Development of Resistance in Pest Populations. http: //www.nd.edu/chem191/e2.html (January 20, 2003)
J.T. Trumbel W. Carson H Nakakihara V. Voth (1988) ArticleTitle‘Impact of pesticides for tomato fruit worm (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) suppression on photosynthesis, yield, and non-target arthropods in strawberries’ J. Econ. Entomol. 81 608–614
UFW: (2002). Latino Farmworkers Face Greater Risk of Cancer. http: //www.faultline.org/new/2002/08/UFWcancer.html (January 18, 2003)
UNEP: (1979). The State of the Environment: Selected Topics – 1979. Nairobi, United National Environment Program, Governing Council, Seventh Session
L.J. Unnevehr F.M. Lowe D. Pimentel C.B. Brooks R.L. Baldwin R.N. Beachy E.A. Chornesky E.A. Hiler W.E. Huffman L.J. King L.N. Kuzminski W.B. Lacy T.L. Lyon K. McNutt W.L. Ogren R Reginato J.W. Suttie (2003) Frontiers in Agricultural Research: Food, Health, Environment, and Communities National Academies of Science Washington, DC.
USBC: (1990). Statistical Abstract of the United States. Washington, DC, US Bureau of the Census, US Department of Congress
USFWS: (1988). 1985 Survey of Fishing, Hunting and Wildlife Associated Recreation. Washington, DC, US Fish and Wildlife Service, US Department of the Interior
USGS: (1995). Pesticides in Public Supply Wells of Washington State. http: //wa.water.usgs.gov/ccpt/pubs/fs-122-96.html (January 21, 2003)
USGS: (1996). Pesticides Found in Ground Water below Orchards in the Quincy and Pasco Basin. http: //wa.water.usgs.gov/ccpt/pubs/fs-171-96.html (January 21, 2003)
B.P Weiner R.M. Worth (1972) Insecticides: household use and respiratory impairment Adverse Effects of Common Environmental Pollutants MSS Information Corporation New York. 149–151
Well Owner: (2003). The Use of Ground Water. http: //www.wellowner.org/useof.html (January 21, 2003)
L. White (1967) ArticleTitle‘The historical roots of our ecological crisis’ Science. 155 1203–1207
D.H. White C.A. Mitchell L.D. Wynn E.L Flickinger E.J. Kolbe (1982) ArticleTitle‘Organophosphate insecticide poisoning of Canada geese in the Texas Panhandle’ J. Field Ornithol. 53 22–27
WHO: (1997). Malaria: A Statistical Index. World Health Organization, Geneva. The Scientist. 11(10), 6 (May 12, 1997)
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Additional information
*Readers should send their comments on this paper to: BhaskarNath@aol.com within 3 months of publication of this issue.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Pimentel, D. ‘Environmental and Economic Costs of the Application of Pesticides Primarily in the United States’. Environ Dev Sustain 7, 229–252 (2005). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-005-7314-2
Received:
Accepted:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-005-7314-2