Abstract
Cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs) are naturally-sourced nanoparticles that can be used to modify polymers and provide exceptional mechanical properties to nanocomposite materials. In this study, CNCs were incorporated into water-based pressure sensitive adhesives (PSAs) via in situ semi-batch emulsion polymerization to improve PSA properties. A sequential design approach was used to improve CNC/poly(n-butyl acrylate/vinyl acetate) nanocomposite PSAs. In the first part of the design, the effects of acrylic acid (AA) and anionic surfactant sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) were examined in the presence of 0.5 wt% CNCs (based on polymer mass). While the SDS was crucial to maintaining latex stability, its excessive addition led to a decrease in PSA performance, namely tack and peel strength. The AA comonomer was pivotal in improving the shear strength of the PSAs, especially in the presence of CNCs. In all cases, the addition of CNCs led to improved PSA shear strength. In the second part of the design, the addition of 1-dodecanethiol (NDM) as a chain transfer agent (CTA) with CNC levels up to 1 wt% led to an improvement in tack and peel strength but at the cost of diminishing the shear strength. Generally, the addition of CNCs improved PSA performance. Thus, to maximize the impact of CNCs on PSA properties, a careful balance of SDS (for latex stability), AA (to improve shear strength) and NDM (to improve tack and peel strength) are needed.
Graphic abstract
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Abd El-Fattah M, Hasan AMA, Keshawy M et al (2018) Nanocrystalline cellulose as an eco-friendly reinforcing additive to polyurethane coating for augmented anticorrosive behavior. Carbohydr Polym 183:311–318. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carbpol.2017.12.084
Abitbol T, Marway H, Cranston ED (2014) Surface modification of cellulose nanocrystals with cetyltrimethylammonium bromide. Nord Pulp Pap Res J 29:46
Arvidsson R, Kushnir D, Sandén BA, Molander S (2014) Prospective life cycle assessment of graphene production by ultrasonication and chemical reduction. Environ Sci Technol 48:4529–4536. https://doi.org/10.1021/es405338k
Beck S, Bouchard J (2014) Auto-catalyzed acidic desulfation of cellulose nanocrystals. Nord Pulp Pap Res J 29:6–14. https://doi.org/10.3183/npprj-2014-29-01-p006-014
Beck S, Bouchard J, Berry R (2012) Dispersibility in water of dried nanocrystalline cellulose. Biomacromol 13:1486–1494. https://doi.org/10.1021/bm300191k
Brinatti C, Huang J, Berry RM et al (2016) Structural and energetic studies on the interaction of cationic surfactants and cellulose nanocrystals. Langmuir 32:689–698. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.langmuir.5b03893
Buffa JM, Casado U, Mucci V, Aranguren MI (2019) Cellulose nanocrystals in aqueous suspensions: rheology of lyotropic chiral liquid crystals. Cellulose 26:2317–2332. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10570-019-02278-3
Cao Y, Zavaterri P, Youngblood J et al (2015) The influence of cellulose nanocrystal additions on the performance of cement paste. Cem Concr Compos 56:73–83. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2014.11.008
Capron I, Rojas OJ, Bordes R (2017) Behavior of nanocelluloses at interfaces. Curr Opin Colloid Interface Sci 29:83–95. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cocis.2017.04.001
Carreño NLV, Barbosa AM, Noremberg BS et al (2017) Advances in nanostructured cellulose-based biomaterials. In: Kacprzyk J (ed) Advances in nanostructured cellulose-based biomaterials. Springer, Cham, pp 1–32
Chan HK, Howard GJ (1978) Structure-property relationships in acrylic adhesives. J Adhes 9:279–304. https://doi.org/10.1080/00218467808075121
Cherhal F, Cousin F, Capron I (2015) Influence of charge density and ionic strength on the aggregation process of cellulose nanocrystals in aqueous suspension, as revealed by small-angle neutron scattering. Langmuir 31:5596–5602. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.langmuir.5b00851
Chern CS (2006) Emulsion polymerization mechanisms and kinetics. Prog Polym Sci 31:443–486. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.progpolymsci.2006.02.001
Dankovich TA, Gray DG (2010) Contact angle measurements on smooth nanocrystalline cellulose (I) thin films. J Adhes Sci Technol 25:699–708. https://doi.org/10.1163/016942410X525885
Dastjerdi Z, Cranston ED, Dubé MA (2017) Synthesis of Poly(n-butyl acrylate/methyl methacrylate)/CNC latex nanocomposites via in situ emulsion polymerization. Macromol React Eng 201700013:1–8. https://doi.org/10.1002/mren.201700013
Dastjerdi Z, Cranston ED, Dubé MA (2018) Pressure sensitive adhesive property modification using cellulose nanocrystals. Int J Adhes Adhes 81:36–42. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijadhadh.2017.11.009
Dastjerdi Z, Cranston ED, Berry R et al (2019) Polymer Nanocomposites for Emulsion-Based Coatings and Adhesives. Macromol React Eng 13:1–15. https://doi.org/10.1002/mren.201800050
De France KJ, Hoare T, Cranston ED (2017) Review of hydrogels and aerogels containing nanocellulose. Chem Mater 29:4609–4631. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.chemmater.7b00531
De France KJ, Badv M, Dorogin J et al (2019) Tissue response and biodistribution of injectable cellulose nanocrystal composite hydrogels. ACS Biomater Sci Eng 5:2235–2246. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsbiomaterials.9b00522
Dubé MA, Salehpour S (2014) Applying the principles of green chemistry to polymer production technology. Macromol React Eng 8:7–28. https://doi.org/10.1002/mren.201300103
Dufresne A (2018) Current challenges in melt extrusion of cellulose-based nanocomposites. ACS Symp Ser 1304:137–152. https://doi.org/10.1021/bk-2018-1304.ch007
Foster EJ, Moon RJ, Agarwal UP et al (2018) Current characterization methods for cellulose nanomaterials. Chem Soc Rev 47:2609–2679. https://doi.org/10.1039/c6cs00895j
Giese M, Blusch LK, Khan MK, MacLachlan MJ (2015) Functional materials from cellulose-derived liquid-crystal templates. Angew Chemie Int Ed 54:2888–2910. https://doi.org/10.1002/anie.201407141
González I, Leiza JR, Asua JM (2006) Exploring the limits of branching and gel content in the emulsion polymerization of n-BA. Macromolecules 39:5015–5020. https://doi.org/10.1021/ma060603g
Habibi Y, Lucia LA, Rojas OJ (2010) Cellulose nanocrystals: chemistry, self-assembly, and applications. Chem Rev 110:3479–3500. https://doi.org/10.1021/cr900339w
Jia B, Li Y, Yang B et al (2013) Effect of microcrystal cellulose and cellulose whisker on biocompatibility of cellulose-based electrospun scaffolds. Cellulose 20:1911–1923. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10570-013-9952-0
Jovanović R, Dubé MA (2004) Emulsion-based pressure-sensitive adhesives: a review. J Macromol Sci, Polym Rev 44:1–51. https://doi.org/10.1081/MC-120027933
Jovanović R, Dubé MA (2005) Screening experiments for butyl acrylate/vinyl acetate pressure-sensitive adhesives. Ind Eng Chem Res 44:6668–6675. https://doi.org/10.1021/ie0501778
Jovanovic R, McKenna TF, Dubé MA (2004) Empirical modeling of butyl acrylate/vinyl acetate/acrylic acid emulsion-based pressure-sensitive adhesives. Macromol Mater Eng 289:467–474. https://doi.org/10.1002/mame.200300355
Kaboorani A, Riedl B, Blanchet P et al (2012) Nanocrystalline cellulose (NCC): a renewable nano-material for polyvinyl acetate (PVA) adhesive. Eur Polym J 48:1829–1837. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eurpolymj.2012.08.008
Kajtna J, Šebenik U (2009) Microsphere pressure sensitive adhesives-acrylic polymer/montmorillonite clay nanocomposite materials. Int J Adhes Adhes 29:543–550. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijadhadh.2009.01.001
Kedzior SA, Marway HS, Cranston ED (2017) Tailoring cellulose nanocrystal and surfactant behavior in miniemulsion polymerization. Macromolecules 50:2645–2655. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.macromol.7b00516
Kedzior SA, Zoppe JO, Berry RM, Cranston ED (2019) Recent advances and an industrial perspective of cellulose nanocrystal functionalization through polymer grafting. Curr Opin Solid State Mater Sci 23:74–91. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cossms.2018.11.005
Khalina M, Sanei M, Mobarakeh HS, Mahdavian AR (2015) Preparation of acrylic/silica nanocomposites latexes with potential application in pressure sensitive adhesive. Int J Adhes Adhes 58:21–27. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijadhadh.2014.12.007
Khan U, May P, Porwal H et al (2013) Improved adhesive strength and toughness of polyvinyl acetate glue on addition of small quantities of graphene. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces 5:1423–1428. https://doi.org/10.1021/am302864f
Kim HC, Fthenakis V (2013) Life cycle energy and climate change implications of nanotechnologies: a critical review. J Ind Ecol 17:528–541. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-9290.2012.00538.x
Kluge M, Veigel S, Pinkl S et al (2017) Nanocellulosic fillers for waterborne wood coatings: reinforcement effect on free-standing coating films. Wood Sci Technol 51:601–613. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00226-017-0892-y
Lagerwall JPF, Schütz C, Salajkova M et al (2014) Cellulose nanocrystal-based materials: from liquid crystal self-assembly and glass formation to multifunctional thin films. NPG Asia Mater 6:1–12. https://doi.org/10.1038/am.2013.69
Lahiji RR, Xu X, Reifenberger R et al (2010) Atomic force microscopy characterization of cellulose nanocrystals. Langmuir 26:4480–4488. https://doi.org/10.1021/la903111j
Lavoine N, Bergström L (2017) Nanocellulose-based foams and aerogels: processing, properties, and applications. J Mater Chem A 5:16105–16117. https://doi.org/10.1039/c7ta02807e
Li F, Biagioni P, Bollani M et al (2013a) Multi-functional coating of cellulose nanocrystals for flexible packaging applications. Cellulose 20:2491–2504. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10570-013-0015-3
Li Q, McGinnis S, Sydnor C et al (2013b) Nanocellulose life cycle assessment. ACS Sustain Chem Eng 1:919–928. https://doi.org/10.1021/sc4000225
Lin N, Huang J, Dufresne A (2012) Preparation, properties and applications of polysaccharide nanocrystals in advanced functional nanomaterials: a review. Nanoscale 4:3274–3294. https://doi.org/10.1039/c2nr30260h
Lovell PA, El-Aasser MS, Lovell P (1997) Emulsion polymerization and emulsion polymers. Wiley, New York
Lu P, Hsieh YL (2009) Cellulose nanocrystal-filled poly(acrylic acid) nanocomposite fibrous membranes. Nanotechnology. https://doi.org/10.1088/0957-4484/20/41/415604
Mariano M, El Kissi N, Dufresne A (2014) Cellulose nanocrystals and related nanocomposites: review of some properties and challenges. J Polym Sci, Part B: Polym Phys 52:791–806. https://doi.org/10.1002/polb.23490
Miao C, Hamad WY (2019) Critical insights into the reinforcement potential of cellulose nanocrystals in polymer nanocomposites. Curr Opin Solid State Mater Sci. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cossms.2019.06.005
Moon RJ, Martini A, Nairn J et al (2011) Cellulose nanomaterials review: structure, properties and nanocomposites. Chem Soc Rev 40:3941–3994. https://doi.org/10.1039/c0cs00108b
O’Connor B, Berry R, Goguen R (2014) Commercialization of cellulose nanocrystal (NCC™) production_ a business case focusing on the importance of proactive EHS management. Elsevier Inc, Amsterdam
Oh JK, Park CH, Lee SW et al (2013) Adhesion performance of PSA-clay nano-composites by the in situ polymerization and mechanical blending. Int J Adhes Adhes 47:13–20. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijadhadh.2013.09.002
Okan M, Aydin HM, Barsbay M (2019) Current approaches to waste polymer utilization and minimization: a review. J Chem Technol Biotechnol 94:8–21. https://doi.org/10.1002/jctb.5778
Ouzas A, Niinivaara E, Cranston ED, Dubé MA (2018a) In Situ semibatch emulsion polymerization of 2-Ethyl Hexyl Acrylate/n-Butyl Acrylate/Methyl Methacrylate/Cellulose nanocrystal Nanocomposites for adhesive applications. Macromol React Eng 12:1–10. https://doi.org/10.1002/mren.201700068
Ouzas A, Niinivaara E, Cranston ED, Dubé MA (2018b) Synthesis of poly(isobutyl acrylate/n-butyl acrylate/methyl methacrylate)/CNC nanocomposites for adhesive applications via in situ semi-batch emulsion polymerization. Polym Compos. https://doi.org/10.1002/pc.24869
Park GH, Kim KT, Ahn YT et al (2014) The effects of graphene on the properties of acrylic pressure-sensitive adhesive. J Ind Eng Chem 20:4108–4111. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jiec.2014.01.008
Patel S, Bandyopadhyay A, Ganguly A, Bhowmick AK (2006) Synthesis and properties of nanocomposite adhesives. J Adhes Sci Technol 20:371–385. https://doi.org/10.1163/156856106776381794
Pressure Sensitive Tape Council (2014) Test methods for pressure sensitive adhesive tapes, 16th edn. Oakbrook Terrace, IL
Qie L, Dubé MA (2010) Manipulation of chain transfer agent and cross-linker concentration to modify latex micro-structure for pressure-sensitive adhesives. Eur Polym J 46:1225–1236. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eurpolymj.2010.02.014
Qie L, Dubé MA (2011) Manipulating latex polymer microstructure using chain transfer agent and cross-linker to modify PSA performance and viscoelasticity a. Macromol React Eng. https://doi.org/10.1002/mren.201000046
Reid MS, Villalobos M, Cranston ED (2017) Benchmarking cellulose nanocrystals: from the laboratory to industrial production. Langmuir. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.langmuir.6b03765
Ren S, Dubé MA (2017) Modification of latex microstructure and adhesive performance using d-Limonene as a chain transfer agent. Int J Adhes Adhes 75:132–138. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijadhadh.2017.03.003
Reynhout XEE, Beckers M, Meuldijk J, Drinkenburg BAH (2005) Electrosteric stability of styrene/acrylic acid copolymer latices under emulsion polymerization reaction conditions. J Polym Sci, Part A: Polym Chem 43:726–732. https://doi.org/10.1002/pola.20547
Roman M (2015) Toxicity of cellulose nanocrystals: a review. Ind Biotechnol 11:25–33. https://doi.org/10.1089/ind.2014.0024
Rose S, Prevoteau A, Elzière P et al (2014) Nanoparticle solutions as adhesives for gels and biological tissues. Nature 505:382–385. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature12806
Salieri B, Turner DA, Nowack B, Hischier R (2018) Life cycle assessment of manufactured nanomaterials: where are we? NanoImpact 10:108–120. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.impact.2017.12.003
Seabra AB, Bernardes JS, Fávaro WJ et al (2018) Cellulose nanocrystals as carriers in medicine and their toxicities: a review. Carbohydr Polym 181:514–527. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carbpol.2017.12.014
Sheltami RM, Kargarzadeh H, Abdullah I, Ahmad I (2017) Thermal properties of cellulose nanocomposites. In: Kargarzadeh H, Ahmad I, Thomas S, Dufresne A (eds) Handbook of nanocellulose and cellulose nanocomposites. Wiley, pp 523–552
Shirakbari N, Ebrahimi M, Salehi-Mobarakeh H, Khorasani M (2014) Effect of surfactant type and concentration on surfactant migration, surface tension, and adhesion of latex films. J Macromol Sci Part B Phys 53:1286–1292. https://doi.org/10.1080/00222348.2014.901876
Voisin H, Bergström L, Liu P, Mathew AP (2017) Nanocellulose-based materials for water purification. Nanomaterials. https://doi.org/10.3390/nano7030057
Wagner S, Gondikas A, Neubauer E et al (2014) Spot the difference: engineered and natural nanoparticles in the environment-release, behavior, and fate. Angew Chemie Int Ed 53:12398–12419. https://doi.org/10.1002/anie.201405050
Wang T, Lei CH, Dalton AB et al (2006) Waterborne, nanocomposite pressure-sensitive adhesives with high tack energy, optical transparency, and electrical conductivity. Adv Mater 18:2730–2734. https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.200601335
Wang N, Guo Y, Xu H et al (2009a) Preparation of a silica/poly(n-butyl acrylate-co-acrylic acid) composite latex and its pressure-sensitive properties. J Appl Polym Sci 113:3113–3124. https://doi.org/10.1002/app.30348
Wang T, Colver PJ, Bon SAF, Keddie JL (2009b) Soft polymer and nano-clay supracolloidal particles in adhesives: synergistic effects on mechanical properties. Soft Matter 5:3842–3849. https://doi.org/10.1039/b904740a
Yang HWH (1995) Water-based polymers as pressure-sensitive adhesives—viscoelastic guidelines. J Appl Polym Sci 55:645–652. https://doi.org/10.1002/app.1995.070550413
Yang J, Zhao JJ, Xu F, Sun RC (2013) Revealing strong nanocomposite hydrogels reinforced by cellulose nanocrystals: insight into morphologies and interactions. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces 5:12960–12967. https://doi.org/10.1021/am403669n
Zhang Y, Dubé MA (2017) Green Emulsion Polymerization Technology. Advances in Polymer Science. Springer, Berlin, pp 1–36
Zhang Y, Cunningham MF, Smeets NMB, Dubé MA (2018) Starch nanoparticle incorporation in latex-based adhesives. Eur Polym J 106:128–138. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eurpolymj.2018.07.014
Zhu Y, Romain C, Williams CK (2016) Sustainable polymers from renewable resources. Nature 540:354–362. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature21001
Zosel A, Schuler B (1999) Influence of surfactants on the peel strength of water-based pressure sensitive adhesives. J Adhes 70:179–195. https://doi.org/10.1080/00218469908010494
Acknowledgments
The authors are obliged to CelluForce Inc. for providing the unmodified CNC starting material and gratefully acknowledge the financial support of CelluForce Inc., FPInnovations and the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council (NSERC) (CRDPJ 492852-15) of Canada.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding authors
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Electronic supplementary material
Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Pakdel, A.S., Gabriel, V., Berry, R.M. et al. A sequential design approach for in situ incorporation of cellulose nanocrystals in emulsion-based pressure sensitive adhesives. Cellulose 27, 10837–10853 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10570-020-03060-6
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10570-020-03060-6