Skip to main content
Log in

Insecticide use: Contexts and ecological consequences

  • Published:
Agriculture and Human Values Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Constraints to the sustainability of insecticide use include effects on human health, agroecosystems (e.g., beneficial insects), the wider environment (e.g., non-target species, landscapes and communities) and the selection of insecticide-resistant traits. It is possible to find examples where insecticides have impacted disastrously on all these variables and others where the hazards posed have been (through accident or design) ameliorated. In this review, we examine what can currently be surmised about the direct and indirect long-term, field impacts of insecticides upon the environment. We detail specific examples, describe current insecticide use patterns, consider the contexts within which insecticide use occurs and discuss the role of regulation and legislation in reducing risk. We consider how insecticide use is changing in response to increasing environmental awareness and inevitably, as we discuss the main constraints to insecticide use, we suggest why they cannot easily be discarded.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

Abbreviations

BSE:

Bovine spongiform encephalopathy

Bt:

Bacillus thuringiensis

DDT:

Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane

DEFRA:

UK Department for Environment, Food & Rural Affairs

EPA:

US Environmental Protection Agency

FAO:

Food and Agriculture Organization

GAO:

US Government Accounting Office

IGR:

Insect growth regulator

IPM:

Integrated pest management

JHA:

Juvenile hormone analogue

LC:

Lethal concentration

LD:

Lethal dose

OP:

Organophosphate

ULV:

Ultra low volume

UNEP:

United Nations Environment Program

References

  • Agarwal S. S., S. R. Phadke, V. Fredland, D. Viljoen, P. Beighton (1997). Mseleni and Handigodu familial osteoarthropathies: syndromic identity? American Journal of Medical Genetics, 72(4), 435–439

    Google Scholar 

  • Aladin N. V, Potts W. T. W (1992). Changes in the Aral Sea ecosystems during the period 1960–1990. Hydrobiologia 237, 67–69

    Google Scholar 

  • Allen W. A., E. G. Rajotte (1990). The changing-role of extension entomology in the IPM era. Annual Review of Entomology 35, 379–397

    Google Scholar 

  • Altieri M. A., A. Rojas (1999). Ecological impacts of Chile’s neoliberal policies, with special emphasis on agroecosystems. Environment, Development and Sustainability 1(1), 55–72

    Google Scholar 

  • Amman K. (2001). Safety of genetically engineered plants: an ecological risk assessment of vertical gene flow. In C. Custers (ed.), Safety of Genetically Engineered Crops (pp 61–87). Ghent, Belgium: VIB

    Google Scholar 

  • Anderson B. S., J. W. Hunt, B. M. Phillips, P. A. Nicely, K. D. Gilbert, V. Vlaming, V. Connor, N. Richard, R. S. Tjeerdema (2003). Ecotoxicologic impacts of agricultural drain water in the Salinas River, California, USA. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry 22(10), 2375–2384

    Google Scholar 

  • Andow D. A., D. P. Davis (1989). Agriculture chemicals: food and environment. In D. Pimentel, C. W. Hall (eds.), Food and Natural Resources (pp.191–234). San Diego, California: Academic Press

    Google Scholar 

  • Anon. (2006). The database of arthropods resistant to pesticides. Michigan State University – Center for Integrated Plant Systems. Retrieved from http://www.pesticideresistance.org on May 29, 2006

  • Anon. (2003a). Environmental risk assessment scheme for plant protection products. Bulletin Organisation Européenne et Méditerranéenne pour la Protection des Plantes [European and Mediterranean Plant Protection Organization Bulletin] 33(1): 103–111

  • Anon. (2003b). Pesticide Usage Statistics. Retrieved from http://pusstats.csl.gov.uk/index.cfm on September 14, 2005

  • Anon. (1999a). In A. Campbell (ed.), Declines and Disappearances of Australian Frogs. Canberra, Australia: Environment Australia

  • Anon. (1999b). Update on Indian vulture crisis. Vulture News 41, 14

  • Anon. (2003a). Environmental risk assessment scheme for plant protection products. Bulletin Organisation Européenne et Méditerranéenne pour la Protection des Plantes [European and Mediterranean Plant Protection Organization Bulletin] 33(1), 103–111

    Google Scholar 

  • Anon. (2003b). Pesticide Usage Statistics. Retrieved from http://pusstats.csl.gov.uk/index.cfm on September 14, 2005

  • Anon. (1999a). In A. Campbell (ed.), Declines and Disappearances of Australian Frogs. Canberra, Australia: Environment Australia

  • Anon. (1999b). Update on Indian vulture crisis. Vulture News 41, 14

    Google Scholar 

  • Ataniyazova O. A., R. A. Baumann, A. K. D. Liem, U. A. Mukhopadhyay, E. F. Vogelaar, E. R. Boersma (2001). Levels of certain metals, organochlorine pesticides and dioxins in cord blood, maternal blood, human milk and some commonly used nutrients in the surroundings of the Aral Sea (Karakalpakstan, Republic of Uzbekistan). Acta Paediatrica 90(7), 801–808

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Avery D. T. (2000). Saving the planet with pesticides and plastic: the environmental triumph of high-yield farming 2nd edition. Indianapolis, Indiana: Hudson Institute

    Google Scholar 

  • Benton T. G., D. M. Bryant, L. Cole, H. Q. P. Crick (2002). Linking agricultural practice to insect and bird populations: a historical study over three decades. Journal of Applied Ecology 39(4), 673–687

    Google Scholar 

  • Bevill R. L., S. M. Louda, L. M. Stanforth (1999). Protection from natural enemies in managing rare plant species. Conservation Biology 13(6), 1323–1331

    Google Scholar 

  • Blaustein A. R., J. M. Kiesecker (2002). Complexity in conservation: lessons from the global decline of amphibian populations. Ecology Letters 5(4), 597–608

    Google Scholar 

  • Boatman N. D., N. W. Brickle, J. D. Hart, T. P. Milsom, A. J. Morris, A. W. A. Murray, K. A. Murray, P. A. Robertson (2004). Evidence for the indirect effects of pesticides on farmland birds. Ibis 146 (s2), 131–143

    Google Scholar 

  • Bonmatin J. M., I. Moineau, R. Charvet, C. Fleche, M. E. Colin, E. R. Bengsch (2003). A LC/APCI-MS/MS method for analysis of imidacloprid in soils, in plants, and in pollens. Analytical Chemistry 75(9), 2027–2033

    Google Scholar 

  • Boza Barducci, T. (1972). Ecological consequences of pesticides used for the control of cotton insects in the Cañete Valley, Peru. In M. T. Farvar, J. P. Milton (eds.), The Careless Technology: Ecology and International Development. Garden City, New York: The Natural History Press

    Google Scholar 

  • Brown, L. R. (1998). The future of growth. In State of the World 1998. A Worldwatch Institute Report on Progress Toward a Sustainable Society. New York: The Worldwatch Institute, W. W. Norton. Retrieved from http://www.worldwatch.org/pubs/sow/1998/ on September 14, 2005

  • Bues R., P. Bussières, M. Dadomo, Y. Dumas, M. I. Garcia-Pomar, J. P. Lyannaz (2004). Assessing the environmental impacts of pesticides used on processing tomato crops. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 102(2), 155–162

    Google Scholar 

  • Campbell L., A. S. Cooke (1997). The Indirect Effects of Pesticides on Birds. Peterborough: Joint Nature Conservation Committee

    Google Scholar 

  • CDPR (California Department of Pesticide Regulation) (2006). Mill assessment/product compliance program. Retrieved from http://www.cdpr.ca.gov/docs/mlassess/masesmnu.htm on September 14, 2005

  • Centro Internacional de la Papa (2002a). IPM in the Cañete Valley. Retrieved from http://www.cipotato.org/potato/ipm/canete_valley.asp on February 28, 2007

  • Centro Internacional de la Papa (2002b). Global cooperation needed to combat leafminer fly Annual Report 2002. Retrieved from http://www.cipotato.org/publications/annual_reports/2002/04_leafminerfly.asp on February 28, 2007

  • CGFI (Center for Global Food Issues) (2005). Declaration in support of protecting nature with high-yield farming and forestry. Retrieved from http://www.highyieldconservation.org/declaration.html on January 5, 2007

  • Chandler G. T., T. L. Cary, A. C. Bejarano, J. Pender, J. L. Ferry (2004). Population consequences of fipronil and degradates to copepods at field concentrations: an integration of life cycle testing with Leslie matrix population modeling. Environmental Science & Technology 38(23), 6407–6414

    Google Scholar 

  • Cisneros, F. and N. Mujica (1999). Biological and selective control of the sweet potato whitefly, Bemisia tabaci (Gennadius) (Hom.: Aleyrodidae). In Research on Sweetpotato. CIP Program Report 1997–98 (pp. 255–264). Lima, Peru: Centro Internacional de la Papa

  • Cockbill G. F. (1979). The effect of ultra-low volume aerial applications of endosulfan applied against Glossina (Diptera: glossinidae) on populations of non-target organisms in savanna woodland in Zimbabwe-Rhodesia. Bulletin of Entomological Research 69, 645–655

    Google Scholar 

  • Cohen M. M. Jr. (2001). Frog decline, frog malformations, and a comparison of frog and human health. American Journal of Medical Genetics: Part A 104(2), 101–109

    Google Scholar 

  • Coleman B. D., M. A. Mares, M. R. Willig, Y. H. Hsieh (1982). Randomness, area, and species richness. Ecology 63(4), 1121–1133

    Google Scholar 

  • Colin M. E., J. M. Bonmatin, I. Moineau, C. Gaimon, S. Brun, J. P. Vermandere (2004). A method to quantify and analyze the foraging activity of honey bees: relevance to the sublethal effects induced by systemic insecticides. Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology 47(3), 387–395

    Google Scholar 

  • Courtemanch D. L., K. E. Gibbs (1980). Short and long term effects of forest spraying of carbaryl (Sevin-4-oil®) on stream invertebrates. Canadian Entomologist 112(3), 271–276

    Google Scholar 

  • Crosa G., L. Yameogo, D. Calamari, M. E. Diop, K. Nabe, F. Konde (2001a). Analysis of the effects of rotational larviciding on aquatic fauna of two Guinean rivers: the case of permethrin. Chemosphere 44(3), 501–10

    Google Scholar 

  • Crosa G., L. Yameogo, D. Calamari, F. Konde, K. Nabe (2001b). Effects of larvicide treatment on invertebrate communities of Guinean rivers, West Africa. Hydrobiologia 458, 151–158

    Google Scholar 

  • CropLife International (2007). International Trade. Retrieved from http://www.croplife.org/ on January 5, 2007

  • Dasgupta S., C. Meisner, D. Wheeler (2007). Is environmentally friendly agriculture less profitable for farmers? Evidence on integrated pest management in Bangladesh. Review of Agricultural Economics 29 (1), 103–118

    Google Scholar 

  • Davidson C., H. B. Shaffer, M. R. Jennings (2002). Spatial tests of the pesticide drift, habitat destruction, UV-B, and climate-change hypotheses for California amphibian declines. Conservation Biology 16(6), 1588–1601

    Google Scholar 

  • Davidson C., H. B. Shaffer, M. R. Jennings (2001). Declines of the California red-legged frog: climate, UV-B, habitat, and pesticides hypotheses. Ecological Applications 11(2), 464–479

    Google Scholar 

  • Davidson C. B., K. W. Gottschalk, J. E. Johnson (1999). Tree mortality following defoliation by the European gypsy moth (Lymantria dispar L.) in the United States: a review. Forest Science 45(1), 74–84

    Google Scholar 

  • Davies, I. (2005). UK self-sufficiency drops by 12%. In Farmers Weekly, February 4, 2005. Retrieved from http://www.fwi.co.uk on September 14, 2005

  • Davies P. E., L. S. J. Cook (1993). Catastrophic macroinvertebrate drift and sublethal effects on Brown Trout, Salmo trutta, caused by Cypermethrin spraying on a Tasmanian stream. Aquatic Toxicology 27(3/4), 201–224

    Google Scholar 

  • De Jong, F. M. W., G. R. De Snoo (2002). A comparison of the environmental impact of pesticide use in integrated and conventional potato cultivation in The Netherlands. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment 91(1), 5–13

    Google Scholar 

  • De Snoo, G. R. (1999). Unsprayed field margins: effects on environment biodiversity and agricultural practice. Landscape and Urban Planning 46(1), 151–160

    Google Scholar 

  • De Vault D. S., R. Hesselberg, P. W. Rodgers, T. J. Feist (1996). Contaminant trends in lake trout and Walleye from the Laurentian great lakes. Journal of Great Lakes Research 22(4), 884–895

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • De Vlaming V., C. DiGiorgio, S. Fong, L. A. Deanovic, M. D. Carpio-Obeso, J. L. Miller, M. J. Miller, N. J. Richard (2004). Irrigation runoff insecticide pollution of rivers in the Imperial Valley, California (USA). Environmental Pollution 132(2), 213–229

    Google Scholar 

  • Dearfield K. L., E. S. Bender, M. Kravitz, R. Wentsel, M. W. Slimak, W. H. Farland, P. Gilman (2004). Ecological risk assessment issues identified during the U.S. environmental protection agency’s examination of risk assessment practices. Integrated Environmental Assessment and Management 1(1), 73–76

    Google Scholar 

  • Decourtye A., J. Devillers, S. Cluzeau, M. Charreton, M. H. Pham-Delegue (2004). Effects of imidacloprid and deltamethrin on associative learning in honeybees under semi-field and laboratory conditions. Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety 57(3), 410–419

    Google Scholar 

  • Decourtye A., E. Lacassie, M. Pham-Delegue (2003). Learning performances of honeybees (Apis mellifera L) are differentially affected by imidacloprid according to the season. Pest Management Science 59(3), 269–278

    Google Scholar 

  • DEFRA (Department of Environment, Food and Rural Affairs) (2005). Agriculture in the United Kingdom 2004. London: The Stationery Office (TSO). Retrieved from http://statistics. defra.gov.uk/esg/publications/auk/2004/ on September 14, 2005

  • DEFRA (Department of Environment, Food and Rural Affairs) (2000). Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs: Design of a Tax or Charge Scheme for Pesticides. Retrieved from http://www.defra.gov.uk/environment/chemicals/pesticides/pesticidestax on September 14, 2005

  • Devine G. J., M. Barber, I. Denholm (2001). Incidence and inheritance of resistance to METI-acaricides in European strains of the two-spotted spider mite (Tetranychus urticae) (Acari: Tetranychidae). Pest Management Science 57(5), 443–448

    Google Scholar 

  • Devine G. J., I. Ishaaya, A. R. Horowitz, I. Denholm (1998). Effects of piperonyl butoxide on Bemisia tabaci Genn. (Homoptera: Aleyrodidae): mortality, development, parasitism and predation in Israeli cotton fields. Crop Protection 17(9), 717–726

    Google Scholar 

  • Dhadialla T. S., G. R. Carlson, D. P. Le (1998). New insecticides with ecdysteroidal and juvenile hormone activity. Annual Review of Entomology 43, 545–69

    Google Scholar 

  • Donald P. F., R. E. Green, M. F. Heath (2001). Agricultural intensification and the collapse of Europe’s farmland bird populations. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, Series B: Biological Sciences 268, 25–29

    Google Scholar 

  • Dutton A., H. Klein, J. Romeis, F. Bigler (2002). Uptake of Bt-toxin by herbivores feeding on transgenic maize and consequences for the predator Chrysoperla carnea. Ecological Entomology 27(4), 441–447

    Google Scholar 

  • Ehrlich P. R. (1968). The Population Bomb. New York: Ballantine Books

    Google Scholar 

  • El Kady H., G. J. Devine (2003). Insecticide resistance in Egyptian populations of the cotton whitefly, Bemisia tabaci (Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae). Pest Management Science 59(8), 865–871

    Google Scholar 

  • Elliot M., N. F. Janes, C. Potter (1978). The future of pyrethroids in insect control. Annual Review of Entomology 23, 443–469

    Google Scholar 

  • Emlen J. T., H. Young, R. L. Strecker (1958). Demographic responses of two house mouse populations to moderate suppression measures with 1080 rodenticide. Ecology 39(2), 200–206

    Google Scholar 

  • EPA (Environmental Protection Agency) (2006). EPA determines that chlorfenapyr does not meet the requirements for registration; American cyanamid withdraws application. Retrieved from http://www.epa.gov/opprd001/chlorfenapyr/ on February 28, 2007

  • Epstein L., S. Bassein (2003). Patterns of pesticide use in California and the implications for strategies for reduction of pesticides. Annual Review of Phytopathology 41, 351–375

    Google Scholar 

  • Erwin W. J., R. S. Sharpe (1978). Effect of wide area ultralow volume application of malathion on small mammal populations. Transactions of the Nebraska Academy of Sciences 5, 25–28

    Google Scholar 

  • Eshleman K. N., D. A. Fiscus, N. M. Castro, J. R. Webb, A. T. Herlihy (2004). Regionalization of disturbance-induced nitrogen leakage from mid-Appalachian forests using a linear systems model. Hydrological Processes 18(14), 2713–2725

    Google Scholar 

  • Everts J. W. (1997). Ecotoxicology for risk assessment in arid zones: some key issues. Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology 32(1), 1–10

    Google Scholar 

  • FAO (Food, Agriculture Organisation) (2005). The State of Food Insecurity in the World 2005. Eradicating World Hunger: Key to Achieving the Millennium Development Goals. Rome, Italy: Economic and Social Department, Food and Agriculture Organization

  • FAO (Food and Agriculture Organisation) (2004a), FAOSTAT On-line Statistical Service. Retrieved from http://faostat.fao.org/ on May 29, 2006

  • FAO (Food and Agriculture Organisation) (2004b). The state of food and agriculture 2003–2004. Agricultural biotechnology: meeting the needs of the poor? In T. Raney (ed.), FAO Agriculture Series (SOFA)-35. Rome, Italy: Food and Agriculture Organisation. Retrieved from http://www.fao.org/documents/show_cdr.asp?url_file=/docrep/006/Y5160E/Y5160E00.htm on September 14, 2005

  • FAO (Food and Agriculture Organisation) (2003). In J. Bruinsma (ed.), World Agriculture: Towards 2015/2030, An FAO Perspective. Rome, Italy: Economic and Social Department, Food and Agriculture Organisation. Retrieved from http://www.fao.org/documents/show_cdr.asp?url_file=/docrep/005/y4252e/y4252e00.htm on September 14, 2005

  • FAO (Food and Agriculture Organisation) (2002). Reducing Poverty and Hunger: The Critical Role of Financing for Food, Agriculture and Rural Development. Rome, Italy: Economic and Social Department, Food and Agriculture Organisation. Retrieved from http://www.fao.org/docrep/003/Y6265e/y6265e00.htm on May 18, 2006

  • FAO (Food and Agriculture Organisation) (2000). Agriculture, Trade and Food Security Issues and Options in the WTO Negotiations from the Perspective of Developing Countries. Vol II. Country Case Studies. Rome, Italy: Commodities and␣Trade Division, Retrieved from http://www.fao.org/documents/show_cdr.asp?url_file=/docrep/003/ X8731e/X8731e00.htm on September 14, 2005

  • FAO (Food and Agriculture Organisation) (1996). Analysis of Government Responses to the Second Questionnaire on the State of Implementation of the International Code of Conduct on the Distribution and Use of Pesticides. Rome, Italy: Pesticide Management Unit, Retrieved from http://www.fao.org/WAICENT/FaoInfo/Agricult/AGP/AGPP/Pesticid/Manage/Quest2/2qfrt.htm on September 14, 2005

  • Fare R., S. Grosskopf, W. L. Weber (2006). Shadow prices and pollution costs in U.S. agriculture. Ecological Economics 56(1), 89–103

    Google Scholar 

  • Faucon J. P., C. Aurières, P. Drajnudel, L. Mathieu, M. Ribière, A. C. Martel, S. Zeggane, M. P. Chauzat, M. F. A. Aubert (2005). Experimental study on the toxicity of imidacloprid given in syrup to honeybee (Apis mellifera) colonies. Pest Management Science 61(2), 111–125

    Google Scholar 

  • Faucon J. P., L. Mathieu, M. Ribière, A. C. Martel, P. Drajnudel, S. Zeggane, C. Aurières, M. F. A. Aubert (2002). Honey bee winter mortality in France in 1999 and 2000. Bee World 83(1), 14–23

    Google Scholar 

  • Forbes V. E., P. Calow (1999). Is the per capita rate of increase a good measure of population level effects in ecotoxicology? Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry 18(7), 1544–1556

    Google Scholar 

  • Furlong M. J., Z. H. Shi, Y. Q. Liu, S. J. Guo, Y. B. Lu, S. S. Liu, M. P. Zalucki (2004). Experimental analysis of the influence of pest management practice on the efficacy of an endemic arthropod natural enemy complex of the diamondback moth. Journal of Economic Entomology 97(6), 1814–1827

    Google Scholar 

  • Furlong M. J., R. H. J. Verkerk, D. J. Wright (1994). Differential effects of the acylurea insect growth-regulator teflubenzuronon on the adults of 2 endolarval parasitoids of Plutella xylostella, Cotesia plutellae and Diadegma semiclausum. Pesticide Science 41(4), 359–364

    Google Scholar 

  • GAO (US General Accounting Office) (2001). Agricultural pesticides – management improvements needed to further promote Integrated Pest Management. Report to the Chairman, Subcommittee on Research, Nutrition, and General Legislation, Committee on Agriculture, Nutrition, and Forestry, U.S. Senate. Washington, District of Columbia: US General Accounting Office. Retrieved from http://www. gao.gov/new.items/d01815.pdf on September 14, 2005

  • Giddings J. M., K. R. Solomon, S. J. Maund (2001). Probabilistic risk assessment of cotton pyrethroids. II. Aquatic mesocosm and field studies. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry 20(3), 660–668

    Google Scholar 

  • GM Science Review Panel (2004). GM Science Review – Second Report: An open review of the science relevant to GM crops and food based on interests and concerns of the public. Retrieved from http://www.gmsciencedebate.org.uk/report/pdf/gmsci-report2-pt1.pdf on September 14, 2005

  • Godfray H. C. J., M. S. Chan (1990). How insecticides trigger single stage outbreaks in tropical pests. Functional Ecology 4, 329–337

    Google Scholar 

  • Goldstein M. I., T. E. Lacher Jr., M. E. Zaccagnini, M. L. Parker, M. J. Hooper (1999). Monitoring and assessment of Swainson’s Hawks in Argentina following restrictions on monocrotophos use, 1996–97. Ecotoxicology 8(3), 215–224

    Google Scholar 

  • Gordon I., E. M. Abdulla, I. C. Campbell, S. A. Whatley (1998). Phosmet induces upregulation of surface levels of the cellular prion protein. Neuroreport 9(7), 1391–1395

    Google Scholar 

  • Grafton-Cardwell E. E., P. Gu (2003). Conserving vedalia beetle, Rodolia cardinalis (Mulsant) (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae), in citrus: a continuing challenge as new insecticides gain registration. Journal of Economic Entomology 96(5), 1388–98

    Google Scholar 

  • Grant I. F. (2001). Insecticides for tsetse and trypanosomiasis control: is the environmental risk acceptable? Trends in Parasitology 17(1), 10–14

    Google Scholar 

  • Gray A. J. (2004). Ecology and government policies: the GM crop debate. Journal of Applied Ecology 41(1), 1–10

    Google Scholar 

  • Green R. E., I. Newton, S. Shultz, A. A. Cunningham, M. Gilbert, D. J. Pain, V. Prakash (2004). Diclofenac poisoning as a cause of vulture population declines across the Indian subcontinent. Journal of Applied Ecology 41(5), 793–800

    Google Scholar 

  • Greenhalgh C. (2005). Why does market capitalism fail to deliver a sustainable environment and greater equality of incomes? Cambridge Journal of Economics 29(6), 1091–1109

    Google Scholar 

  • Greig-Smith P. W. (1992). A European perspective on ecological risk assessment, illustrated by pesticide registration procedures in the United Kingdom. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry 11, 1673–1689

    Google Scholar 

  • Grewell J. B., C. J. Landry, G. Conko (2003). Ecological agrarian: agriculture’s first evolution in 10,000 years. West Lafayette, Indiana: Purdue University Press

    Google Scholar 

  • Guilhermino L., O. Sobral, C. Chastinet, R. Ribeiro, F. Gonçalves, M. C. Silva, A. M. V. M. Soares (1999). A Daphnia magna first-brood chronic test: an alternative to the conventional 21-day chronic bioassay? Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety 42(1), 67–74

    Google Scholar 

  • Halford N. G. (2004). Prospects for genetically modified crops. Annals of Applied Biology 145(1), 17–24

    Google Scholar 

  • Hardin G. (1968). The tragedy of the commons. Science 162, 1243–1248

    Google Scholar 

  • Hardy A. R., G. E. Westlake, G. A. Lloyd, P. M. Brown, P. W. Greig-Smith, M. R. Fletcher, K. A. Tarrant, P. I. Stanley (1993). An intensive field trial to assess hazards to birds and mammals from the use of methiocarb as a bird repellent on ripening cherries. Ecotoxicology 2(1), 1–31

    Google Scholar 

  • Heaney S. I., R. H. Foy, G. J. A. Kennedy, W. W. Crozier, W. C. K. O’Connor (2001). Impacts of agriculture on aquatic systems: lessons learnt and new unknowns in Northern Ireland. Marine and Freshwater Research 52(1), 151–163

    Google Scholar 

  • Hewa-Kapuge S., S. McDougall, A. A. Hoffman (2003). Effects of methoxyfenozide, indoxacarb, and other insecticides on the beneficial egg parasitoid Trichograma nr. brassicae (Hymenoptera: Trichogrammatidae) under laboratory and field conditions. Journal of Economic Entomology 96, 1083–1090

    Google Scholar 

  • Hilbeck A., M. Baumgartner, P. M. Fried, F. Bigler (1998). Effects of transgenic Bacillus thuringiensis corn-fed prey on mortality and development time of immature Chrysoperla carnea (Neuroptera: Chrysopidae). Environmental Entomology 27(2), 480–487

    Google Scholar 

  • Holl K., G. Daily, P. R. Ehrlich (1990). Integrated pest management in Latin America. Environmental Conservation 17(4), 341–350

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Holland J. M., M. L. Luff (2000). The effects of agricultural practices on Carabidae in temperate agroecosystems. Integrated Pest Management Reviews 5(2), 109–129

    Google Scholar 

  • Holland J. M., G. K. Frampton, T. Cilgi, S. D. Wratten (1994). Arable acronyms analyzed: a review of integrated arable farming systems research in Western Europe. Annals of Applied Biology 125, 399–438

    Google Scholar 

  • Holmes S. B. (1998). Reproduction and nest behaviour of Tennessee warblers Vermivora peregrina in forests treated with Lepidoptera-specific insecticides. Journal of Applied Ecology 35(2), 185–194

    Google Scholar 

  • Holt J., D. R. Wareing, G. A. Norton (1992). Strategies of insecticide use to avoid resurgence of Nilaparvata lugens (Homoptera, Delphacidae) in tropical rice – a simulation analysis. Journal of Economic Entomology 85, 1979–1989

    Google Scholar 

  • Houlahan J. E., C. S. Findlay, B. R. Schmidt, A. H. Meyer, S. L. Kuzmin (2000). Quantitative evidence for global amphibian population declines. Nature 404, 752–755

    Google Scholar 

  • Hummel R. L., J. F. Walgenbach, G. D. Hoyt, G. G. Kennedy (2002). Effects of production system on vegetable arthropods and their natural enemies. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 93(1), 165–176

    Google Scholar 

  • Ishaaya I., A. R. Horowitz (1995). Pyriproxyfen, a novel insect growth-regulator for controlling whiteflies – mechanisms and resistance management. Pesticide Science 43, 227–232

    Google Scholar 

  • Ismael Y., R. Bennett, S. Morse (2002). Farm-level economic impact of biotechnology: smallholder Bt cotton farmers in South Africa. Outlook on Agriculture 31(2), 107–111

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jansen J. P. (2000). A 3-year field study on the short-term effects of insecticides used to control cereal aphids on plant-dwelling predators in winter wheat. Pest Management Science 56(6), 533–539

    Google Scholar 

  • Jedlicka J., J. Vandermeer, K. Aviles-Vazquez, O. Barros, I. Perfecto (2004). Gypsy moth defoliation of oak trees and a positive response of red maple and black cherry: an example of indirect interaction. American Midland Naturalist 152(2), 231–236

    Google Scholar 

  • Jensen S., Z. Mazhitova, R. Zetterström (1997). Environmental pollution and child health in the Aral Sea region in Kazakhstan. Science of the Total Environment 206(5), 187–93

    Google Scholar 

  • Jepson P. C., J. R. M. Thacker (1990). Analysis of the spatial component of pesticide side-effects on non-target invertebrate populations and its relevance to hazard analysis. Functional Ecology 4, 349–355

    Google Scholar 

  • Kaosa-ard, M. S. and B. Rerkasem (2000). Growth and Sustainablity of Asian Agriculture. Study of Rural Asia, Vol 2. Asian Development Bank. New York: Oxford University Press

  • Kasbohm J. W., M. R. Vaughan, J. G. Kraus (1996). Effects of gypsy moth infestation on black bear reproduction and survival. Journal of Wildlife Management 60(2), 408–416

    Google Scholar 

  • Kogan M. (1998). Integrated pest management: historical perspectives and contemporary developments. Annual Review of Entomology 43, 243–270

    Google Scholar 

  • Konig A., A. Cockburn, R. W. R. Crevel, E. Debruyne, R. Grafstroem, U. Hammerling, I. Kimber, I. Knudsen, H. A. Kuiper, A. A. C. M. Peijnenburg, A. H. Penninks, M. Poulsen, M. Schauzu, J. M. Wal (2004). Assessment of the safety of foods derived from genetically modified (GM) crops. Food and Chemical Toxicology 42(7), 1047–1088

    Google Scholar 

  • Kovach J., C. Petzoldt, J. Degni, J. Tette (1992). A method to measure the environmental impact of pesticides. New York’s Food and Life Sciences Bulletin 139, 8pp. Geneva, New York: IPM Program, Cornell University, New York State Agricultural Experiment Station

  • Krebs J. R., J. D. Wilson, R. B. Bradbury, G. M. Siriwardena (1999). The second silent spring? Nature 400, 611–612

    Google Scholar 

  • Kremen C., N. M. Williams, R. W. Thorp (2002). Crop pollination from native bees at risk from agricultural intensification. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 99(26), 16812–16816

    Google Scholar 

  • Kremen C., T. Ricketts (2000). Global perspectives on pollination disruptions. Conservation Biology 14(5), 1226–1228

    Google Scholar 

  • Krishnamachari K. A. V. R, R. V. Bhat (1978). Endemic familial arthritis of Malnad: an outbreak in southern India. Tropical and Geographical Medicine 30(1), 33–37

    Google Scholar 

  • Kroma M. M., C. Butler Flora (2003). Greening pesticides: a historical analysis of the social construction of farm chemical advertisements. Agriculture and Human Values 20(1), 21–35

    Google Scholar 

  • Kuhn A., W. R. Munns Jr., S. Poucher, D. Champlin, S. Lussier (2000). Prediction of population-level response from mysid toxicity test data using population modeling techniques. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry 19(9), 2364–2371

    Google Scholar 

  • Lacher T. E., M. I. Goldstein (1997). Tropical ecotoxicology: status and needs. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry 16(1), 100–11

    Google Scholar 

  • Lack G. (2002). Clinical risk assessment of GM foods. Toxicology Letters 127, 337–340

    Google Scholar 

  • Lahr J., A. Badji, S. Marquenie, E. Schuiling, K. B. Ndour, A. O. Diallo, J. W. Everts (2001). Acute toxicity of locust insecticides to two indigenous invertebrates from Sahelian temporary ponds. Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety 48(1), 66–75

    Google Scholar 

  • Lesica P., H. E. Atthowe (2000). Should we use poesticides to conserve rare plants? Conservation Biology 14(5), 1549–1550

    Google Scholar 

  • Levitan L. (2000). How to and why: assessing the enviro-social impacts of pesticides. Crop Protection 19, 629–636

    Google Scholar 

  • Lewis G. B. (2003). 8th international symposium of the ICP-BR Bee Protection Group. Minutes of the meeting. Bulletin of Insectology 56(1), 7–23

    Google Scholar 

  • Lockwood J. A., W. P. Kemp, J. A. Onsager (1988). Long-term, large-scale effects of insecticidal control on rangeland grasshopper populations (Orthoptera: Acrididae). Journal of Economic Entomology 81, 1258–1264

    Google Scholar 

  • Lohr L., T. Park, L. Higley (1999). Farmer risk assessment for voluntary insecticide reduction. Ecological Economics 30(1), 121–130

    Google Scholar 

  • Longley M., N. W. Sotherton (1997). Factors determining the effects of pesticides upon butterflies inhabiting arable farmland. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 61(1), 1–12

    Google Scholar 

  • Longley M., P. C. Jepson, J. Izquierdo, N. Sotherton (1997). Temporal and spatial changes in aphid and parasitoid populations following applications of deltamethrin in winter wheat. Entomologia Experimentalis et Applicata 83(1), 41–52

    Google Scholar 

  • Losey J. E., L. S. Raynor, M. E. Carter (1999). Transgenic pollen harms Monarch larvae. Nature 399, 214

    Google Scholar 

  • Louda S. M., R. L. Bevill (2000). Exclusion of natural enemies as a tool in managing rare plant species. Conservation Biology 14(5), 1551–1552

    Google Scholar 

  • Luseesa, D., B. Sekamatte and D. Russell (2003). Advances in the extension of Ugandan cotton management. World Cotton Research Conference (3). March 9–13, 2003, Cape Town, South Africa

  • Magadza C. H. D. (1978). Field observations on the environmental effect of large-scale aerial applications of endosulfan in the eradication of Glossina morsitans centralis Westw. in the Western Province of Zambia in 1968. Rhodesian Journal of Agricultural Research 16, 211–220

    Google Scholar 

  • Matlock R. B., R. de la Cruz (2002). An inventory of parasitic Hymenoptera in banana plantations under two pesticide regimes. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 93(1), 147–164

    Google Scholar 

  • Maud J., G. Edwards-Jones, F. Quin (2001). Comparative evaluation of pesticide risk indices for policy development and assessment in the United Kingdom. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 86(1), 59–73

    Google Scholar 

  • Maus C., G. Cure, R. Schmuck (2003). Safety of imidacloprid seed dressings to honey bees: a comprehensive overview and compilation of the current state of knowledge. Bulletin of Insectolology 56(1), 51–57

    Google Scholar 

  • McEwen, L. C., M. C. Althouse, and B. E. Petersen (1996). Direct and indirect effects of grasshopper Integrated Pest Management chemicals and biologicals on nontarget animal life. In G. L. Cuningham and M. W. Sampson (eds.), Grasshopper Integrated Pest Management User Handbook. Section III. Environmental Monitoring and Evaluation. (Technical Bulletin No. 1809.) Washington, District of Columbia: Animal and Plant Health Inspection Services, United States Department of Agriculture. Retrieved from http://www.sidney.ars.usda.gov/grasshopper/Handbook/TOC.htm on September 12, 2005

  • McWilliam A. N., R. A. Cheke (2004). A review of the impacts of control operations against the red-billed quelea (Quelea quelea) on non-target organisms. Environmental Conservation 31(2), 130–137

    Google Scholar 

  • Meier M. S., A. Hilbeck (2001). Influence of transgenic Bacillus thuringiensis corn-fed prey on prey preference of immature Chrysoperla carnea (Neuroptera: Chrysopidae). Basic and Applied Ecology 2(1), 35–44

    Google Scholar 

  • Metcalf, R. L. (1980). Changing role of insecticides. Annual Reviews of Entomology, 219–256

  • Mian L. S., M. S. Mulla (1992). Effects of pyrethroid insecticides on nontarget invertebrates in aquatic ecosystems. Journal of Agricultural Entomology 9, 73–98

    Google Scholar 

  • Mills N. E., R. D. Semlitsch (2004). Competition and predation mediate the indirect effects of an insecticide on southern leopard frogs. Ecological Applications 14(4), 1041–1054

    Google Scholar 

  • Mineau, P. (2005). Direct losses of birds to pesticides: beginnings of a quantification. USDA Forest Service General Technical Report (PSW-GTR-191), 1065–1070

  • Mineau P. (1988). Avian mortality in agroecosystems. I. The case against granule insecticides in Canada. In M. P. Greaves, B. D. Smith, P. W. Greig-Smith (eds.), Field Methods for the Study of Environmental Effects of Pesticides. (Monograph 40) (pp. 3–12). Thornton Heath, London: British Crop Protection Council

    Google Scholar 

  • Mineau P., B. T. Collins (1988). Avian mortality in agro-ecosystems. II: Methods of detection. In M. P. Greaves, B. D. Smith, P. W. Greig-Smith (eds.), Field Methods for the Study of Environmental Effects of Pesticides (Monograph 40) (pp. 13–27). Thornton Heath, London: British Crop Protection Council

    Google Scholar 

  • Mochizuki M. (2003). Effectiveness and pesticide susceptibility of the pyrethroid-resistant predatory mite Amblyseius womersleyi in the integrated pest management of tea pests. Biocontrol 48(2), 207–221

    Google Scholar 

  • Mohan D. (1987). Food vs. limbs: pesticides and physical-disability in India. Economic and Political Weekly 22(13), 23–29

    Google Scholar 

  • Moreby S. J., N. W. Sotherton, P. C. Jepson (1997). The effects of pesticides on species of non-target Heteroptera inhabiting cereal fields in southern England. Pesticide Science 51(1), 39–48

    Google Scholar 

  • Morris A. J., J. D. Wilson, M. J. Whittingham, R. B. Bradbury (2005). Indirect effects of pesticides on breeding yellowhammer (Emberiza citrinella). Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 106, 1–16

    Google Scholar 

  • Morris R. D. (1970). The effects of endrin on Microtus and Peromyscus. I. Unenclosed field populations. Canadian Journal of Zoology 48, 695–708

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nair A. (1999). What’s eating the vulture? Down to Earth 7(16), 29–39

    Google Scholar 

  • Naranjo S. E., P. C. Ellsworth, J. R. Hagler (2004). Conservation of natural enemies in cotton: role of insect growth regulators in management of Bemisia tabaci. Biological Control 30, 52–72

    Google Scholar 

  • Nauen R., U. Ebbinghaus-Kintscher, R. Schmuck (2001). Toxicity and nicotinic acetylcholine receptor interaction of imidacloprid and its metabolites in Apis mellifera (Hymenoptera: Apidae). Pest Management Science 57(7), 577–586

    Google Scholar 

  • Nazarova L (2006). Chironomids of the Aral Sea. CHIRONOMUS Newsletter on Chironomidae Research 19, 10–12

    Google Scholar 

  • Newton I. (2004). The recent declines of farmland bird populations in Britain: An appraisal of causal factors and conservation actions. Ibis 146(4), 579–600

    Google Scholar 

  • Newton, I. (1979). Population Ecology of Raptors. Berkhamsted, UK: T. & A. D. Poyser

  • Niemi G. J., P. DeVore, N. Detenbeck, D. Taylor, A. Lima, J. Pastor, J. D. Yount, R. J. Naiman (1990). Overview of case studies on recovery of aquatic systems from disturbance. Environmental Management 14(5), 571–587

    Google Scholar 

  • Oaks J. L., M. Gilbert, M. Z. Virani, R. T. Watson, C. U. Meteyer, B. A. Rideout, H. L. Shivaprasad, S. Ahmed, M. J. I. Chaudhry, M. Arshad, S. Mahmood, A. Ali, A. A. Khan (2004). Diclofenac residues as the cause of vulture population decline in Pakistan. Nature 427, 630–633

    Google Scholar 

  • O’Callaghan M., T. R. Glare, E. P. J. Burgess, L. A. Malone (2005). Effects of plants genetically modified for insect resistance on nontarget organisms. Annual Review of Entomology 50, 271–292

    Google Scholar 

  • O’Hara L. S., G. F. S. Wiggs, B. Mamedov, G. Davidson, R. B. Hubbard (2000). Exposure to airborne dust contaminated with pesticide in the Aral Sea region. Lancet 355(9204), 627–628

    Google Scholar 

  • PANNA (1996). Latin American pesticide market growth. Pesticide Action Network Updates Service (PANUS.). Retrieved from http://www.panna.org/resources/pestis/PESTIS.1996.39.html on May 14, 2006

  • Pain D. J., R. Gargi, A. A. Cunningham, A. Jones, V. Prakash (2004). Mortality of globally threatened Sarus cranes Grus antigon from monocrotophos poisoning in India. Science of the Total Environment 326, 55–61

    Google Scholar 

  • Paugy D., Y. Fermon, K. E. Abban, M. E. Diop, K. Traoré (1999). Onchocerciasis control programme in West Africa: a 20-year monitoring of fish assemblages. Aquatic Living Resources 12, 363–378

    Google Scholar 

  • Phillips B. M., B. S. Anderson, J. W. Hunt, P. A. Nicely, R. A. Kosaka, R. S. Tjeerdema, V. Vlaming, N. Richard (2004). In situ water and sediment toxicity in an agricultural watershed. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry 23, 435–442

    Google Scholar 

  • Pimentel D. (2005). Environmental and economic costs of the application of pesticides primarily in the United States. Environment, Development and Sustainability 7, 229–252

    Google Scholar 

  • Pimentel D. (2002). Silent spring revisited: have things changed since 1962? Pesticide Outlook 13(5), 205–276

    Google Scholar 

  • Pimentel D., H. Acquay, M. Biltonen, P. Rice, M. Silva, J. Nelson, V. Lipner, S. Giordano, A. Horowitz, M. D’Amore (1992). Environmental and economic costs of pesticide use. Bioscience 42(10), 750–760

    Google Scholar 

  • Pimentel D. (1992). Ecological effects of pesticides on non-target species in terrestrial ecosystems. In R. G. Tardiff (ed.), SCOPE 49: Methods to Assess Adverse Effects of Pesticides on Non-target Organisms (pp. 171–190). Toronto, Canada: John Wiley & Sons

    Google Scholar 

  • Potter D.A., M. C. Buxton, C. T. Redmond, C. G. Patterson, A. J. Powell (1990). Toxicity of pesticides to earthworms (Oligochaeta: Lumbricidae) and effect on thatch degradation in Kentucky bluegrass turf. Journal of Economic Entomology 83(6), 2362–2369

    Google Scholar 

  • Potts G. R. (1986). The Partridge: Pesticides, Predation and Conservation. London: Collins

    Google Scholar 

  • Pounds J. A., M. R. Bustamante, L. A. Coloma, J. A. Consuegra, M. P. L. Fogden, P. N Foster, E. La Marca, K. L. Masters, A. Merino-Viteri, R. Puschendorf, S. R. Ron, G. A. Sanchez-Azofeifa, C. J Still, B. E. Young (2006). Widespread amphibian extinctions from epidemic disease driven by global warming. Nature 439, 161–167

    Google Scholar 

  • Prakash V. (1999). Status of vultures in Keoladeo National Park, Bharatpur, Rajasthan, with special reference to population crash in Gyps species. Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society 96, 365 378

    Google Scholar 

  • Preston B. L., T. W. Snell (2001). Full life-cycle toxicity assessment using rotifer resting egg production: Implications for ecological risk assessment. Environmental Pollution 114(3), 399–406

    Google Scholar 

  • Pretty J. N., C. Brett, D. Gee, R. E. Hine, C. F. Mason, J. I. L. Morison, H. Raven, R. D. Rayment, G. Bijl (2000). An assessment of the total external costs of UK agriculture. Agricultural Systems 65(2), 113–136

    Google Scholar 

  • Purdey M. (1996). The UK epidemic of BSE: slow virus or chronic pesticide-initiated modification of the prion protein? Part 2. An epidemiological perspective. Medical Hypotheses 46(5), 445–454

    Google Scholar 

  • Qaim M., D. Zilberman (2003). Yield effects of genetically modified crops in developing countries. Science 299(5608), 900–902

    Google Scholar 

  • Rands M. R. W. (1986). The survival of gamebird (Galliformes) chicks in relation to pesticide use on cereals. Ibis 128, 57–64

    Google Scholar 

  • Rands M. R. W. (1985). Pesticide use on cereals and the survival of grey partridge chicks: a field experiment. Journal of Applied Ecology 22, 49–54

    Google Scholar 

  • Redman A. M., J. M. Scriber (2000). Competition between the gypsy moth, Lymantria dispar, and the northern tiger swallowtail, Papilio canadensis: interactions mediated by host plant chemistry, pathogens, and parasitoids. Oecologia 125(2), 218–228

    Google Scholar 

  • Relyea R. A. (2005). The impact of insecticides and herbicides on the biodiversity and productivity of aquatic communities. Ecological Applications 15(2), 618–627

    Google Scholar 

  • Resh V. H., C. Leveque, B. Statzner (2004). Long-term, large-scale biomonitoring of the unknown: assessing the effects of insecticides to control river blindness (onchocerciasis) in West Africa. Annual Review of Entomology 49, 115–139

    Google Scholar 

  • Roberts D. R., L. L. Laughlin, P. Hsheih, L. J. Legters (1997). DDT, global strategies, and a malaria control crisis in South America. Emerging Infectious Diseases 3(3), 295–302

    Google Scholar 

  • Rosset P. M. (1997). Cuba: ethics, biological control, and crisis. Agriculture and Human Values 14(3), 291–302

    Google Scholar 

  • Russell D. A. (2004). IPM for insect pests of cotton in less developed countries. In A. R. Horowitz, I. Ishaaya (eds.), Insect Pest Management: Field and Protected Crops (pp. 141–180). Berlin: Springer Verlag

    Google Scholar 

  • Sam-Abbenyi S., M. Dama, S. Graham, Z. Obate (1999). Dracunculiasis in Cameroon at the threshold of elimination. International Journal of Epidemiology 28(1), 163–168

    Google Scholar 

  • Sample B. E., L. Butler, C. Zivkovich, R. C. Whitmore, R. Reardon (1996). Effects of Bacillus thuringiensis berliner var. kurstaki and defoliation by gypsy moth [Lymantria dispar (L.) (Lepidoptera: Lymantriidae)] on native arthropods in West Virginia. Canadian Entomologist 128, 573–592

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schauber E. M., W. D. Edge, J. O. Wolff (1997). Insecticide effects on small mammals: influence of vegetation structure and diet. Ecological Applications 7(1), 143–157

    Google Scholar 

  • Schmuck R. (2004). Effects of a chronic dietary exposure of the honeybee Apis mellifera (Hymenoptera: Apidae) to imidacloprid. Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology 47, 471–478

    Google Scholar 

  • Schmuck R., R. Schöning, A. Stork, O. Schramel (2001). Risk posed to honeybees (Apis mellifera L. Hymenoptera) by an imidacloprid seed dressing of sunflowers. Pest Management Science 57(3), 225–238

    Google Scholar 

  • Schuler T. H., R. P. J. Potting, I. Denholm, S. J. Clark, A. J. Clark, C. N. Stewart, G. M. Poppy (2003). Tritrophic choice experiments with Bt plants, the diamondback moth (Plutella xylostella) and the parasitoid Cotesia plutellae. Transgenic Research 12(3), 351–361

    Google Scholar 

  • Schuler T. H., R. P. J. Potting, I. Denholm, G. M. Poppy (1999). Parasitoid behaviour and Bt plants. Nature 400, 825–826

    Google Scholar 

  • Schulz R., M. Liess (1999). A field study of the effects of agriculturally derived insecticide input on stream macroinvertebrate dynamics. Aquatic Toxicology 46(3), 155–176

    Google Scholar 

  • Sears M. K., R. L. Hellmich, D. E. Stanley-Horn, K. S. Oberhauser, J. M. Pleasants, H. R. Mattila, B. D. Siegfried, G. Dively (2001). Impact of Bt corn pollen on Monarch butterfly populations: a risk assessment. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA 98(21), 11937–11942

    Google Scholar 

  • Selås V. (2003). Moth outbreaks in relation to oak masting and population levels of small mammals: an alternative explanation to the mammal-predation hypothesis. Population Ecology 45(2), 157–159

    Google Scholar 

  • Sherratt T. N., P. C. Jepson (1993). A metapopulation approach to modelling the long-term impact of pesticides on invertebrates. Journal of Applied Ecology 30(4), 696–705

    Google Scholar 

  • Sibly R. M., I. Newton, C. H. Walker (2000). Effects of dieldrin on population growth rates of sparrowhawks 1963–1986. Journal of Applied Ecology 37(3), 540–546

    Google Scholar 

  • Sihuincha M., E. Zamora-Perea, W. Orellana-Rios, J. D. Stancil, V. López-Sifuentes, C. Vidal-Oré, G. J. Devine (2005). Potential use of pyriproxyfen for the control of Aedes aegypti (L) (Diptera: Culicidae) in Iquitos, Peru. Journal of Medical Entomology 42(4), 620–630

    Google Scholar 

  • Smith T. M., G. W. Stratton (1986). Effects of synthetic pyrethroid insecticides on nontarget organisms. Residue Reviews 97, 93–120

    Google Scholar 

  • Sparling D. W. S., G. M. F. Ellers, L. L. M. Connell (2001). Pesticides and amphibian population declines in California, USA. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry 20(7), 1591–1595

    Google Scholar 

  • Stark J. D. (2005). How closely do acute lethal concentration estimates predict effects of toxicants on populations? Integrated Environmental Assessment and Management 1(2), 109–113

    Google Scholar 

  • Stark J. D., J. E. Banks (2003). Population-level effects of pesticides and other toxicants on arthropods. Annual Review of Entomology 48, 505–519

    Google Scholar 

  • Studebaker G. E., T. J. Kring (2003). Effects of insecticides on Orius insidiosus (Hemiptera: Anthocoridae), measured by field, greenhouse and petri dish bioassays. Florida Entomologist 86(2), 178–185

    Google Scholar 

  • Suchail S., L. Debrauwer, L. P. Belzunces (2001a). Metabolism of imidacloprid in Apis mellifera. Pest Management Science 60(3), 291–296

    Google Scholar 

  • Suchail S., D. Guez, L. P. Belzunces (2001b). Discrepancy between acute and chronic toxicity induced by imidacloprid and its metabolites in Apis mellifera. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry 20, 2482–2486

    Google Scholar 

  • Takken W., F. Balk, R. C. Jansen, J. H. Koeman (1978). The experimental application of insecticides from a helicopter for the control of riverine populations of Glossina tachinoides in West Africa. VI. Observations on side-effects. Pestic Artic News Summary 24(4), 455–466

    Google Scholar 

  • Thurber D. K., W. R. McClain, R. C. Whitmore (1994). Indirect effects of gypsy-moth defoliation on nest predation. Journal of Wildlife Management 58, 493–500

    Google Scholar 

  • Townsend P. A., K. N. Eshleman, C. Welcker (2004). Remote sensing of gypsy moth defoliation to assess variations in stream nitrogen concentrations. Ecological Applications 14, 504–516

    Google Scholar 

  • Trewavas A. (2001). Urban myths of organic farming. Nature 410, 409–410

    Google Scholar 

  • Trumper E. V., J. Holt (1998). Modelling pest population resurgence due to recolonization of fields following an insecticide application. Journal of Applied Ecology 35(2), 273–285

    Google Scholar 

  • UN (United Nations) (1999). The world at six billion. (ESA/P/WP.154.) Population Division, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, United Nations Secretariat. Retrieved from http://www.un.org/esa/population/publications/sixbillion/sixbillion.htm on May 29, 2006

  • UNECE (United Nations Economic Commission for Europe) (2003). Trends in Europe and North America. The statistical yearbook of the Economic Commission for Europe 2003. Retrieved from http://www.unece.org/stats/trends on May 18, 2006

  • UNEP (United Nations Environment Programme) (1999). Global Environment Outlook 2000. Clarke, R. (ed.). Nairobi, Kenya: Division of Environmental Information, Assessment and Early Warning. Retrieved from http://www.unep.org/geo2000/english/index.htm on September 14, 2005

  • Vale G. A., I. F. Grant, C. F. Dewhurst, D. Aigreau (2004). Biological and chemical assays of pyrethroids in cattle dung. Bulletin of Entomological Research 94(3), 273–282

    Google Scholar 

  • Van den Berg H., K. Hassan, M. Marzuki (1998). Evaluation of pesticide effects on arthropod predator populations in soya bean in farmers’ fields. Biocontrol Science and Technology 8(1), 125–137

    Google Scholar 

  • Wagner R. G., M. Newton, E. C. Cole, J. H. Miller, B. D. Shiver (2004). The role of herbicides for enhancing forest productivity and conserving land for biodiversity in North America. Wildlife Society Bulletin 32(4), 1028–1041

    Google Scholar 

  • Webster T. C., Y. S. Peng (1989). Short-term and long-term effects of methamidophos on brood rearing in honey bee (Hymenoptera: Apidae) colonies. Journal of Economic Entomology 82, 69–74

    Google Scholar 

  • White D. H., E. J. Kolbe (1985). Secondary poisoning of Franklin’s gulls in Texas by monocrotophos. Journal of Wildlife Diseases 21(1), 76–78

    Google Scholar 

  • WHO (World Health Organization) (1990). WHO: Public Health Impact of Pesticides Used in Agriculture. Geneva: World Health Organization

  • WHO (World Health Organization) (2006). WHO gives indoor use of DDT a clean bill of health for controlling malaria. Retrieved from http://www.who.int/mediacentre/news/releases/2006/pr50/en/index.html on February 28, 2007

  • Wiktelius S., P. A. Chiverton, H. Meguenni, M. Bennaceur, F. Ghezal, E.-D. N. Umeh, R. I. Egwuatu, E. Minja, R. Makusi, E. Tukahirwa, W. Tinzaara, Y. Deedat (1999). Effects of insecticides on non-target organisms in African agroecosystems: a case for establishing regional testing programmes. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 75(1), 121–131

    Google Scholar 

  • Wilhoit, L. (2002). Using Pesticide Use Data to Evaluate IPM Programs. In 4th IPM Symposium, Indianapolis, Indiana on April 8–10, 2003. Retrieved from http://www.aftresearch.org/ipm/symposium/symposium_wilhoit.php on January 5, 2007

  • Wilhoit, L., N. Davidson, D. Supkoff, J. Steggall, A. Braun1, S. Simmons, B. Hobza1, C. Hunter, N. Gorder, C. Goodman, and B. Todd (1999). Pesticide Use Analysis and Trends from 1991 to 1996. Sacramento, California: Environmental Protection Agency and the Department of Pesticide Regulation. Retrieved from http://www.cdpr.ca.gov/docs/pur/pur97rep/pur_anal.pdf on January 5, 2007

  • Winegrad G. (1998). Swainson’s Hawk/Argentina: Monocrotophos global withdrawal. Bird Calls 2(1), 12

    Google Scholar 

  • Work T. T., D. G. McCullough (2000). Lepidopteran communities in two forest ecosystems during the first gypsy moth outbreaks in northern Michigan. Environmental Entomology 29(5), 884–900

    Google Scholar 

  • Yameogo L., G. Crosa, J. Samman, K. Nabe, F. Konde, D. Tholley, D. Calamari (2001). Long-term assessment of insecticides treatments in West Africa: aquatic entomofauna. Chemosphere 44(8), 1759–1773

    Google Scholar 

  • Young, J. E. B., M. J. Griffin, D. V. Alford, and S. E. Ogilvy (eds.) (2001). Reducing Agrochemical Use on the Arable Farm: The TALISMAN and SCARAB Projects, 416 pp.␣London: DEFRA

  • Zetterström R. (2003). Industrial and agricultural pollution: a threat to the health of children living in the Arctic region. Acta paediatrica 92(11), 1238–1240

    Google Scholar 

  • Zetterström R. (1999). Child health and environmental pollution in the Aral Sea region in Kazakhstan. Acta paediatrica. Supplementum 88(429), 49–54

    Google Scholar 

  • Zhao J. Z., Y. X. Li, H. L. Collins, L. Gusukuma-Minuto, R. F. L. Mau, G. D. Thompson, A. M. Shelton (2002). Monitoring and characterization of diamondback moth (Lepidoptera: Plutellidae) resistance to spinosad. Journal of Economic Entomology, 95(2), 430–436

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

The opinions herein are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the positions of their respective institutions. Rothamsted Research receives grant-aided support from the Biological and Biosciences Research Council of the UK. We thank John Stark, Myron Zalucki, Dominique Eza, Marion and Donald Devine and four anonymous reviewers for reading and commenting on the manuscript.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Gregor J. Devine.

Additional information

Gregor Devine has an MSc in pest management and a PhD in applied entomology from Imperial College, London. He is a Senior Research Scientist employed by Rothamsted Research, UK. He is currently investigating novel disease vector control methods in Peru in association with the US Naval Medical Research Center Detachment, the Peruvian Ministry of Health, the University of California-Davis, and the US Centers for Disease Control.

Michael Furlong has an MSc in pest management and a PhD in applied entomology from Imperial College, London. He is a Lecturer and Researcher in the School of Integrative Biology at the University of Queensland, Australia. His research interests include biological control, and the design and implementation of sustainable Integrated Pest Management strategies for international development. He works in Australia, China, North Korea and the Pacific Islands.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Devine, G.J., Furlong, M.J. Insecticide use: Contexts and ecological consequences. Agric Hum Values 24, 281–306 (2007). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10460-007-9067-z

Download citation

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10460-007-9067-z

Keywords

Navigation