Abstract
The release of recalcitrant dyes into the biosphere is a threat because of pollution and environmental health issues. Adsorption using commercial activated carbon has been effective in industrial dye-loaded effluent remediation to some acceptable extent. However, commercial activated carbon suffers from limitations related to cost, relatively lower adsorption capacity, fewer microporous and mesoporous networks in comparison with other competing adsorbents, and reduced adsorption efficiency after regeneration. Here we review the recent developments in applying microwave irradiation, ultrasonication, ionic liquids and nanoscience for the preparation, activation, and physical, chemical and biological functionalization of novel and more potent adsorbents such as metal, mineral, carbon and polymer-based nanoparticles for dye removal. We observed that microwave and ultrasound irradiation and the use of ionic liquids are highly beneficial for the preparation of adsorbent materials; those adsorbents display enhanced porous structures and morphologies that account for much larger surface areas for faster adsorption interactions. Graphene-based, magnetic, cellulose-based and nanocomposite adsorbents are more selective and thermally more stable, faster in dye adsorption kinetics, have higher adsorption capacities for many dyes and can be regenerated for reuse without significant decrease in adsorption capacity. The scales of fabrication of green adsorbents do not go beyond the kilogram scale.
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(This entire set of images has been reproduced from Guan et al. (2017) with the permission of Elsevier (© 2017 Published by Elsevier B.V.) under License number 4243420501859 [for both print and electronic formats])
(These SEM images have been reproduced from Tharaneedhar et al. (2017) with permission from Elsevier (© 2016 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved,) under License number 4243961361512 (for both print and electronic formats); b Scanning electron micrograph of the Nephelium lappaceum peel microwave-induced KOH activated carbon prepared by Njoku et al. (2014) at a magnification of ×200 showing a large surface area and relatively good distribution in pore structure; this adsorbent has been reported by Njoku et al. (2014) to have a BET surface area of 971.54 m2/g,a Langmuir surface area of 1518.83 m2/g, an external surface area of 678.78 m2/g, a micropore surface area of 303.80 m2/g and a mean pore diameter of 3.40 nm. This SEM image has been reproduced from Njoku et al. (2014) with permission from Elsevier (Copyright © 2014 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.) under License number 4243970071730 [for both print and electronic formats])
(The figure in part a has been reproduced from Lu et al. (2016) with the permission of Elsevier (Copyright © 2015 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved) under License number 4247411083528 (for both print and electronic formats), the one in part b has been reproduced from Hosseinzadeh and Ramin (2018) with the permission of Elsevier (© 2017 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved) under License number 4247421397049, and the figure depicted in part c has been reproduced from Shao et al. (2015) with the permission of Elsevier (Copyright © 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved) under License number 4254690340395 [for both print and electronic formats])
(These SEM images have all been reproduced from Zhang et al. (2016b) with permission from Elsevier (© 2016 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.) under License number 4243970378096 [for both print and electronic formats])
(The figure in part a has been reprinted with permission from Gopakumar et al. (2017), Copyright © 2017, American Chemical Society (for both print and electronic formats), the one in part b has been reproduced from Soleimani et al. (2018) with the permission of Elsevier (© 2017 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved) under License number 4247401000189 (for both print and electronic formats), and the figure in part c has been reproduced from Jin et al. (2015) with the permission of Springer Nature (Copyright © 2015, Springer Nature) under License number 4260870871896 [for both print and electronic formats])
(Reproduced with permission from Han et al. (2016) with the permission of Elsevier (Copyright © 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved) under License number 4247391408234 [for both print and electronic formats])
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Acknowledgements
We thank the anonymous reviewers for their comments which have helped us reach the present shape and quality of the review. We also appreciate the efforts of all those who have contributed and continue to do so in the literature in the fields related to facile and green adsorbent synthesis and adsorption behavior assessment. Without their respective contributions to the literature, our review would not be in its present format. In duty of care for due diligence, the manuscript versions were continually crosschecked for similarity in an appropriate software before final publication. Permissions for reuse and inclusion of the figures provided in this article (for both the print and online formats) were secured through the RightsLink® service of the Copyright Clearance Center for Figs. 1, 2, 4, 5, 6 and 7, and through the Creative Commons copyright licenses for the two pictures appearing above the dark horizontal lines in the top left and top right corners in Fig. 8.
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Mudhoo, A., Gautam, R.K., Ncibi, M.C. et al. Green synthesis, activation and functionalization of adsorbents for dye sequestration. Environ Chem Lett 17, 157–193 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10311-018-0784-x
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10311-018-0784-x