Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Re-thinking the unimpeded tube-well growth under the depleting groundwater resources in the Punjab, Pakistan

Repenser la croissance sans entrave des forages d’eau dans le contexte de l’épuisement des ressources en eau souterraine au Punjab, Pakistan

Reconsideración del crecimiento sin obstáculos de pozos entubados bajo el agotamiento de los recursos de agua subterránea en el Punjab, Pakistán

巴基斯坦Punjab省地下水资源消耗情况下管井无阻碍增长的再思考

Repensando o crescimento sem controle de poços tubulares sob a província de Punjab, Paquistão

  • Paper
  • Published:
Hydrogeology Journal Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Groundwater resources are crucial in sustaining agro-ecosystems and ensuring food security in many parts of the world, including Pakistan. However, the sustainability of groundwater resources is subject to a number of challenges, including over-extraction, deterioration in quality, and vulnerability to the impacts of climate change and population growth. Given the current state of groundwater resources in Pakistan, policymakers seek to manage groundwater resources by limiting groundwater extraction. To achieve this goal on a national scale, it is important to understand the determinants of the decisions made by local farmers in respect of tube-well adoption. This study investigates smallholder farmers’ decisions to adopt tube-well technology in the face of dwindling groundwater resources and falling water tables. Analysis is based on a cross-sectional survey of 200 rural households from the arid to semi-arid predominantly groundwater-irrigated plains of the Punjab province, Pakistan. It is found that farmers will adopt tube-well technology in pursuit of reliable irrigation water supplies to hedge against production risks but not against the risk associated with unfavourable extreme events (downside risk) such as total crop failure. This suggests that the adoption decision is influenced by the expected long-term rather than the short-term benefits. This paper draws attention to the need to regulate groundwater resource exploitation by requiring the use of tube-well technology to be accompanied by irrigation water-efficient techniques and technologies.

Résumé

Les ressources en eau souterraine sont cruciales pour l’alimentation des agro-ecosystèmes et assurer la sécurité alimentaire dans de nombreuses régions du monde, notamment au Pakistan. Cependant, la durabilité des ressources en eau souterraine est. soumise à de nombreux enjeux, tels que la surexploitation, la dégradation de leur qualité et la vulnérabilité aux impacts du changement climatique et de la croissance de la population. Compte-tenu de l’état actuel des ressources en eau souterraine au Pakistan, les décideurs cherchent à gérer les ressources en eau souterraine en en limitant les prélèvements. Pour atteindre cet objectif à l’échelle nationale, il est. important de comprendre les déterminismes des décisions prises par les agriculteurs locaux en ce qui concerne l’adoption des forages d’eau. Cette recherche étudie les décisions des petits exploitants agricoles qui adoptent la technologie des forages d’eau dans un contexte de diminution des ressources en eau souterraine et de chute des niveaux piézométriques. L’analyse est. basée sur une enquête transversale au sein de 200 foyers ruraux des plaines arides à semi-arides principalement irriguées au moyen d’eau souterraine, de la province du Punjab, Pakistan. Il est. montré que les agriculteurs adopteront la technologie du forage d’eau à la quête d’une alimentation en eau d’irrigation fiable afin de couvrir les risques de production, mais pas contre le risque associé aux évènements extrêmes défavorables (risque de perte), tel. que l’échec total de la récolte. Cela suggère que la décision d’adoption est. influencée par le long terme prévu plutôt que par les bénéfices à court terme. Cet article attire l’attention sur le besoin de réguler l’exploitation de la ressource en eau souterraine en imposant que l’utilisation de la technologie du forage d’eau soit accompagnée par des techniques et technologies d’irrigation efficientes en eau.

Resumen

Los recursos de agua subterránea son cruciales para mantener los agroecosistemas y garantizar la seguridad alimentaria en muchas partes del mundo, incluido Pakistán. Sin embargo, la sostenibilidad de los recursos de agua subterránea está sujeta a una serie de desafíos, que incluyen la extracción excesiva, el deterioro de la calidad y la vulnerabilidad a los impactos del cambio climático y el crecimiento de la población. Dado el estado actual de los recursos de aguas subterráneas en Pakistán, los responsables de las políticas buscan gestionarlos limitando la extracción de aguas subterráneas. Para lograr este objetivo a escala nacional, es importante comprender los determinantes de las decisiones tomadas por los agricultores locales con respecto a la adopción de pozos entubados. Este estudio investiga las decisiones de los pequeños agricultores de adoptar tecnología de pozos entubados frente a la disminución de los recursos de agua subterránea y la profundización de la capa freática. El análisis se basa en un relevamiento transversal de 200 hogares rurales de las llanuras áridas a semiáridas predominantemente con riego con agua subterránea en la provincia de Punjab, Pakistán. Se encuentra que los agricultores adoptaron la tecnología de los pozos entubados en busca de suministros confiables de agua de riego para protegerse contra los riesgos de producción, pero no contra el riesgo asociado con eventos extremos desfavorables (riesgo de pérdida) como el fracaso total de la cosecha. Esto sugiere que la decisión de adopción está influenciada por los beneficios esperados a largo plazo en lugar de los beneficios a corto plazo. Este documento llama la atención sobre la necesidad de regular la explotación de los recursos de agua subterránea al requerir que el uso de la tecnología de los pozos entubados vaya acompañado de técnicas y tecnologías de riego eficiente.

摘要

在世界很多地区包括巴基斯坦,地下水资在源维持农业生态系统和确保粮食安全上至关重要。然而,地下水资源的可持续性受到很多挑战,包括超采、水质恶化、对气候变化和人口增长影响的脆弱性。考虑到巴基斯坦目前地下水资源的现状,政策制定者寻求通过限制地下水开采管理地下水资源。,为了在全国范围内完成这个目标,了解当地农民针对管井的选择做出决定的主要因素非常重要。本研究项目调查了 农民在面临地下水资源减少以及地下水位下降的情况下选择管井技术的决定。根据巴基斯坦Punjab省干旱到半干旱的地下水主要灌溉平原200个农户代表性调查结果进行了分析。发现,农民选择管井技术以寻找可靠的灌溉水源,应对生产风险,但应对不了与极端不利事件(负面风险)诸如整个作物歉收。这表明选择决定受到预期的长期收益而不是短期收益的影响。本文强调了应该通过把管井技术与灌溉节水技术结合一起来管理地下水资源。

Resumo

Os recursos hídricos subterrâneos são cruciais em sustentar os agroecossistemas e garantir a segurança alimentar em várias partes do mundo, incluindo o Paquistão. Entretanto, a sustentabilidade dos recursos hídricos subterrâneos é submetida a um grande número de desafios, incluindo a superexploração, deterioração em qualidade e vulnerabilidade aos impactos das mudanças climáticas e crescimento populacional. Dado o estado atual de recursos hídricos subterrâneos no Paquistão, os legisladores procuram gerenciar água subterrânea por limitação de extração. Para atingir este objetivo em escala nacional, se torna importante entender as razões determinantes das decisões tomadas por agricultores locais em respeito à adoção de poços tubulares. Este estudo investiga as decisões de pequenos agricultores de adotar poços tubulares frente à contínua redução de recursos hídricos subterrâneos e níveis de carga hidráulica. A análise é baseada em uma revisão transversal de 200 domicílios rurais nas planícies áridas ou semiáridas da província de Punjab, Paquistão, que são predominantemente irrigadas por águas subterrâneas. Foi descoberto que agricultores irão adotar poços tubulares em busca de fornecimento confiável de água para se protegerem contra riscos de produção, mas não para se protegerem dos riscos associados com eventos extremos desfavoráveis (riscos negativos) como falha total na produção. Isto sugere que a decisão de adoção é influenciada pela previsão de longo prazo, ao invés de se pautar no curto prazo. Este artigo chama atenção à necessidade de regular a exploração de recursos hídricos subterrâneos, exigindo que o uso de poços tubulares seja acompanhado por técnicas e tecnologias eficientes no consumo de água na irrigação.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Abadi Ghadim AK, Pannell DJ (1999) A conceptual framework of adoption of an agricultural innovation. Agric Econ 21:145–154

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Aeschbach-Hertig W, Gleeson T (2012) Regional strategies for the accelerating global problem of groundwater depletion. Nat Geosci 5:853–861

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ahmad I, Hussain SAS, Zahid M (2004) Why the green revolution was short run phenomena in the development process of Pakistan: a lesson for future. J Rural Dev Admin 35:89–104

    Google Scholar 

  • Akhter G, Hassan M (2016) Determination of aquifer parameters using geoelectrical sounding and pumping test data in Khanewal District, Pakistan. Open Geosci 8(1):630–638

  • Antle JM (1983) Testing the stochastic structure of production: a flexible moment-based approach. J Bus Econ Stat 1:192–201

    Google Scholar 

  • Antle JM (1987) Econometric estimation of producers’ risk attitudes. Am J Agric Econ 69:509–522

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Banerji A, Meenakshi JV, Khanna G (2006) Groundwater irrigation in North India: institutions and markets. South Asian Network for Development and Environmental Economics, Kathmandu, Nepal

  • Basharat M (2012) Spatial and temporal appraisal of groundwater depth and quality in LBDC command-issues and options. Pakistan J Eng Appl Sci 11:14–29

    Google Scholar 

  • Bennett GD, Rehman A, Sheikh IA, Ali S (1967) Analysis of aquifer tests in the Punjab region of West Pakistan. US Geol Surv Water Supply Pap 1608-G

  • Bjornlund H, Nicol L, Klein KK (2009) The adoption of improved irrigation technology and management practices: a study of two irrigation districts in Alberta, Canada. Agric Water Manag 96:121–131

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Byerlee D, Siddiq A (1994) Has the green revolution been sustained? The quantitative impact of the seed-fertilizer revolution in Pakistan revisited. World Dev 22:1345–1361

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Carey JM, Zilberman D (2002) A model of investment under uncertainty: modern irrigation technology and emerging markets in water. Am J Agric Econ 84:171–183

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Caswell MF, Zilberman D (1986) The effects of well depth and land quality on the choice of irrigation technology. Am J Agric Econ 68:798–811

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chaudhry MJ (1990) The adoption of tubewell technology in Pakistan. Pakistan Develop Rev 29:291–303

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chavas J-P, Holt MT (1996) Economic behavior under uncertainty: a joint analysis of risk preferences and technology. Rev Econ Stat 78:329–335

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Di Falco S, Chavas J-P (2009) On crop biodiversity, risk exposure, and food security in the highlands of Ethiopia. Am J Agric Econ 91:599–611

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Di Falco S, Chavas JP (2006) Production risk, food security and crop biodiversity: evidence from barley production in the Tigray region, Ethiopia. University College London, London

    Google Scholar 

  • Dinar A, Zilberman D (1991) The economics of resource-conservation, pollution-reduction technology selection: the case of irrigation water. Resour Energy 13:323–348

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dinar A, Campbell M, Zilberman D (1992) Adoption of improved irrigation and drainage reduction technologies under limiting environmental conditions. Environ Resour Econ 2:373–398

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Döll P, Fiedler K (2008) Global-scale modeling of groundwater recharge. Hydrol Earth Syst Sci 12:863–885

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Döll P, Hoffmann-Dobrev H, Portmann FT, Siebert S, Eicker A, Rodell M, Strassberg G, Scanlon BR (2012) Impact of water withdrawals from groundwater and surface water on continental water storage variations. J Geodyn 59–60:143–156

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Döll P, Müller Schmied H, Schuh C, Portmann FT, Eicker A (2014) Global-scale assessment of groundwater depletion and related groundwater abstractions: combining hydrological modeling with information from well observations and GRACE satellites. Water Resour Res 50:5698–5720

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Falcon WP, Gotsch CH (1968) Lessons in agricultural development: Pakistan. In: Papanek GF (ed) Development policy: theory and practice. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA

    Google Scholar 

  • Feder G, Umali DL (1993) The adoption of agricultural innovations: a review. Technol Forecast Soc Chang 43:215–239

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Foudi S, Erdlenbruch K (2012) The role of irrigation in farmers’ risk management strategies in France. Eur Rev Agric Econ 39:439–457

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Giordano M (2009) Global groundwater? Issues and solutions. Annu Rev Environ Resour 34:153–178

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Greenman DW, Swarzenski WV, Bennett GD (1967) Ground-water hydrology of the Punjab region of West Pakistan, with emphasis on problems caused by canal irrigation. US Geol Surv Water Suppl Pap 1608-H

  • Hanjra MA, Gichuki F (2008) Investments in agricultural water management for poverty reduction in Africa: case studies of Limpopo, Nile, and Volta river basins. Nat Res Forum 32:185–202

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hussain I, Hanjra MA (2004) Irrigation and poverty alleviation: review of the empirical evidence. Irrig Drain 53:1–15

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jacoby HG, Murgai R, Rehman SU (2004) Monopoly power and distribution in fragmented markets: the case of groundwater. Rev Econ Stud 71:783–808

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jehangir WA, Qureshi AS, Ali N (2002) Conjunctive water management in the Rechna Doab: an overview of resources and issues. In: Working paper 48. International Water Management Institute, Lahore, Pakistan

    Google Scholar 

  • Johnson R (1989) Private tube-well development in Pakistan’s Punjab: review of past public programmes/policies and relevant research. International Water Management Institute, Lahore, Pakistan

    Google Scholar 

  • Juma M, Wilfred N, Yesuf M (2009) Production risk and farm technology adoption in rain-fed, semi-arid lands of Kenya, EFD discussion paper 08-15. A joint publication of the Environment for Development Initiative and Resources for the Future, RFF, Washington, DC

  • Just RE, Zilberman D (1983) Stochastic structure, farm size and technology adoption in developing agriculture. Oxf Econ Pap 35:307–328

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kahlown MA, Azam M (2002) Individual and combined effect of waterlogging and salinity on crop yields in the Indus basin. Irrig Drain 51:329–338

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Karagiannis G, Tzouvelekas V, Xepapadeas A (2003) Measuring irrigation water efficiency with a stochastic production frontier. Environ Resour Econ 26:57–72

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Karami E (2006) Appropriateness of farmers’ adoption of irrigation methods: the application of the AHP model. Agric Syst 87:101–119

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kassie M, Yesuf M, Kohlin G (2008) The role of production risk in sustainable land-management technology adoption in the Ethiopian highlands. EFD discussion paper 08-15. A joint publication of the Environment for Development Initiative and Resources for the Future, RFF, Washington, DC

  • Kelleners TJ, Chaudhry MR (1998) Drainage water salinity of tubewells and pipe drains: a case study from Pakistan. Agric Water Manag 37:41–53

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Khair SM, Mushtaq S, Reardon-Smith K (2015) Groundwater governance in a water-starved country: public policy, farmers’ perceptions, and drivers of tubewell adoption in Balochistan, Pakistan. Groundwater 53:626–637

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Khan AH, McCornick P, Khan AR (2008a) Evolution of managing water for agriculture in the Indus River basin. CGIAR, Montpellier, France

    Google Scholar 

  • Khan S, Rana T, Gabriel HF, Ullah M (2008b) Hydrogeologic assessment of escalating groundwater exploitation in the Indus Basin, Pakistan. Hydrogeol J 16:1635–1654

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Khanna G (2007) Improving agricultural efficiency amongst groundwater users: the case of sugarcane in North India. J Pub Int Affairs 18:80–105

  • Kijne JW (1999) Improving the productivity of Pakistan’s irrigation: the importance of management choices. International Water Management Institute, Colombo, Sri Lanka

    Google Scholar 

  • Kim K, Chavas J-P (2003) Technological change and risk management: an application to the economics of corn production. Agric Econ 29:125–142

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Konikow L (2011) Contribution of global groundwater depletion since 1900 to sea-level rise. Geophys Res Lett 38(17). https://doi.org/10.1029/2011GL048604

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Koundouri P, Nauges C, Tzouvelekas V (2006) Technology adoption under production uncertainty: theory and application to irrigation technology. Am J Agric Econ 88:657–670

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lindner RK, Philip PG, Franks JG (1982) Distance to information source and the time lag to early adoption of trace element fertilizers. Aust J Agric Econ 26:98–113

    Google Scholar 

  • Malano H, Burton M, Makin I (2004) Benchmarking performance in the irrigation and drainage sector: a tool for change. Irrig Drain 53:119–133

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Manjunatha AV, Speelman S, Chandrakanth MG, Van Huylenbroeck G (2011) Impact of groundwater markets in India on water use efficiency: a data envelopment analysis approach. J Environ Manag 92:2924–2929

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Marra M, Pannell DJ, Abadi Ghadim A (2003) The economics of risk, uncertainty and learning in the adoption of new agricultural technologies: where are we on the learning curve? Agric Syst 75:215–234

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Meinzen-Dick RS (1996) Groundwater markets in Pakistan: participation and productivity. International Food Policy Research Institute, Washington, DC

    Google Scholar 

  • Muhammad G (1964) Some strategic problems in agricultural development in Pakistan. Pakistan Dev Rev 4:223–260

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Muhammad G (1965) Private tubewell development and cropping patterns in West Pakistan. Pakistan Dev Rev 5:68–87

    Google Scholar 

  • Nulty L (1972) The green revolution in West Pakistan: implications of technological change. Praeger, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Papanek GF (1968) Pakistan’s development social goals and private incentives. Oxford University Press, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Pereira LS, Oweis T, Zairi A (2002) Irrigation management under water scarcity. Agric Water Manag 57:175–206

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Qureshi AS, McCornick P, Sarwar A, Sharma BR (2009) Challenges and prospects of sustainable groundwater management in the Indus Basin, Pakistan. Water Resour Manag 24:1551–1569

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rodel M, Velicogna I, Famiglietti J (2009) Satellite-based estimates of groundwater depletion in India. Nature 460:999–1003

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Scanlon BR, Faunt CC, Longuevergne L, Reedy RC, Alley WM, McGuire VL, McMahon PB, (2012) Groundwater depletion and sustainability of irrigation in the US High Plains and Central Valley. Proc Natl Acad Sci 109(24):9320–9325

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schwartz FW, Ibaraki M (2011) Groundwater: a resource in decline. Elements 7:175

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Seo S, Segarra E, Mitchell PD, Leatham DJ (2008) Irrigation technology adoption and its implication for water conservation in the Texas High Plains: a real options approach. Agric Econ 38:47–55

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shah FA, Zilberman D, Chakravorty U (1995) Technology adoption in the presence of an exhaustible resource: the case of groundwater extraction. Am J Agric Econ 77:291–299

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shah T (1993) Groundwater markets and irrigation development: political economy and practical policy. Oxford University Press, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Shah T, David M, Sakthivadive R, David S (2000) The global groundwater situation: overview of opportunities and challenges. International Water Management Institute, Colombo, Sri Lanka

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Shah T, Bhatt S, Shah RK, Talati J (2008) Groundwater governance through electricity supply management: assessing an innovative intervention in Gujarat, western India. Agric Water Manag 95:1233–1242

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shiferaw B, Reddy VR, Wani SP (2008) Watershed externalities, shifting cropping patterns and groundwater depletion in Indian semi-arid villages: the effect of alternative water pricing policies. Ecol Econ 67:327–340

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shiva V (1991) The green revolution in Punjab. Ecologist 21:57–60

    Google Scholar 

  • Siebert S, Burke J, Faures JM, Frenken K, Hoogeveen J, Döll P, Portmann FT (2010) Groundwater use for irrigation: a global inventory. Hydrol Earth Syst Sci 7:3977–4021

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tilman D, Cassman KG, Matson PA, Naylor R, Polasky S (2002) Agricultural sustainability and intensive production practices. Nature 418:671–677

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • van Steenbergen F, Oliemans W (2002) A review of policies in groundwater management in Pakistan 1950–2000. Water Policy 4:323–344

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • van Steenbergen F, Kaisarani AB, Khan NU, Gohar MS (2015) A case of groundwater depletion in Balochistan, Pakistan: enter into the void. J Hydrol: Reg Stud 4(Part A):36–47

    Google Scholar 

  • Wada Y, van Beek LPH, van Kempen CM, Reckman JWTM, Vasak S, Bierkens MFP (2010) Global depletion of groundwater resources. Geophys Res Lett 37:L20402

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wang J, Huang J, Huang Q, Rozelle S (2006) Privatization of tubewells in North China: determinants and impacts on irrigated area, productivity and the water table. Hydrogeol J 14:275–285

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wang Z, Huang Q, Giordano M (2015) The effect of private tubewells on income and income inequality in rural Pakistan. J Hydrol 527:50–61

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Watto MA, Mugera AW (2013) Measuring groundwater irrigation efficiency in Pakistan: a DEA approach using the sub-vector and slack-based models. Australian Agricultural and Resource Economics conference, Sydney, Australia, February 2013

  • Watto MA, Mugera AW (2015) Econometric estimation of groundwater irrigation efficiency of cotton cultivation farms in Pakistan. J Hydrol: Reg Stud 4(Part A):193–211

    Google Scholar 

  • Watto MA, Mugera AW (2016) Groundwater depletion in the Indus Plains of Pakistan: imperatives, repercussions and management issues. Int J River Basin Manag 14:447–458

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Werner A-H, Tom G (2012) Regional strategies for the accelerating global problem of groundwater depletion. Nat Geosci 5:853–861

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wichelns D (2002) An economic perspective on the potential gains from improvements in irrigation water management. Agric Water Manag 52:233–248

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Yesuf M, Bluffstone RA (2009) Poverty, risk aversion, and path dependence in low-income countries: experimental evidence from Ethiopia. Am J Agric Econ 91:1022–1037

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. UWA School of Agricultural and Environment, The University of Western Australia (UWA), 35 Stirling Highway, Crawley, WA, 6009, Australia

    Muhammad Arif Watto, Amin W. Mugera & Ross Kingwell

  2. Faculty of Social Sciences, Institute of Agricultural Extension and Rural Development, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan

    Muhammad Arif Watto

  3. The UWA Institute of Agriculture, The University of Western Australia, 35 Stirling Highway, Crawley, WA, 6009, Australia

    Amin W. Mugera

  4. Department of Agriculture and Food, Bentley Delivery Centre, Locked Bag 4, Bentley, WA, 6983, Australia

    Ross Kingwell

  5. The Australian Export Grains Innovation Centre, 3 Baron-Hay Court, South Perth, WA, 6151, Australia

    Ross Kingwell

  6. Irish Centre for Research in Applied Geosciences (iCRAG), School of Earth Sciences, University College Dublin, Belfield, Ireland

    Muhammad Mudasar Saqab

Authors
  1. Muhammad Arif Watto
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Amin W. Mugera
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Ross Kingwell
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Muhammad Mudasar Saqab
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Muhammad Arif Watto.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Watto, M.A., Mugera, A.W., Kingwell, R. et al. Re-thinking the unimpeded tube-well growth under the depleting groundwater resources in the Punjab, Pakistan. Hydrogeol J 26, 2411–2425 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10040-018-1771-9

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10040-018-1771-9

Keywords

Search

Navigation