Abstract
Imaging with intravascular contrast media is generally considered safe, particularly in patients without renal failure. However, as renal function deteriorates, the potential risk of nonallergic-type adverse events increases. This presents a unique challenge, particularly when the use of intravenous contrast media is deemed essential for diagnostic purposes. Following a discussion regarding the definition and epidemiology of kidney injury, this review focuses on the evolving understanding of both contrast-induced nephropathy and nephrogenic systemic fibrosis and discusses preventative strategies aimed at minimizing the risk of developing these entities. Alternative non-contrast imaging techniques are also discussed.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Poff J, Hecht E, Ramchandani P (2011) Renal imaging in patients with renal impairment. Curr Urol Rep 12(1):24–33. doi:10.1007/s11934-010-0158-9
American College of Radiology (2015) Committee on drugs and contrast media. ACR manual on contrast media version 10.1
Bellomo R, Ronco C, Kellum JA, Mehta RL, Palevsky P (2004) Acute renal failure-definition, outcome measures, animal models, fluid therapy and information technology needs: the Second International Consensus Conference of the Acute Dialysis Quality Initiative (ADQI) Group. Crit Care 8(4):R204
Mehta RL, Kellum JA, Shah SV, et al. (2007) Acute kidney injury network: report of an initiative to improve outcomes in acute kidney injury. Crit Care 11(2):R31
Davenport MS, Khalatbari S, Cohan RH, et al. (2013) Contrast material-induced nephrotoxicity and intravenous low-osmolality iodinated contrast material: risk stratification by using estimated glomerular filtration rate. Radiology 268(3):719–728. doi:10.1148/radiol.13122276
Davenport MS, Khalatbari S, Dillman JR, et al. (2013) Contrast material-induced nephrotoxicity and intravenous low-osmolality iodinated contrast material. Radiology 267(1):94–105. doi:10.1148/radiol.12121394
McDonald RJ, McDonald JS, Carter RE, et al. (2014) Intravenous contrast material exposure is not an independent risk factor for dialysis or mortality. Radiology 273(3):714–725
Eknoyan G, Levin N (2002) K/DOQI clinical practice guidelines for chronic kidney disease: evaluation, classification, and stratification-foreword. Am J Kidney Dis 39(2):S14–S266
Kidney Disease: Improving Global Outcomes (KDIGO) CKD Work Group (2013) KDIGO 2012 clinical practice guideline for the evaluation and management of chronic kidney disease. Kidney Inter Suppl 1–150
Levey AS, de Jong PE, Coresh J, et al. (2011) The definition, classification, and prognosis of chronic kidney disease: a KDIGO controversies conference report. Kidney Int 80(1):17–28
Stevens LA, Levey AS (2009) Measured GFR as a confirmatory test for estimated GFR. J Am Soc Nephrol 20(11):2305–2313
Stevens LA, Schmid CH, Greene T, et al. (2010) Comparative performance of the CKD epidemiology collaboration (CKD-EPI) and the modification of diet in renal disease (MDRD) study equations for estimating GFR levels above 60 mL/min/1.73 m2. Am J Kidney Dis 56(3):486–495
Levey AS, Bosch JP, Lewis JB, et al. (1999) A more accurate method to estimate glomerular filtration rate from serum creatinine: a new prediction equation. Ann Intern Med 130(6):461–470
Levey AS, Eckardt K-U, Tsukamoto Y, et al. (2005) Definition and classification of chronic kidney disease: a position statement from kidney disease: improving global outcomes (KDIGO). Kidney Int 67(6):2089–2398
Levin A, Stevens PE (2014) Summary of KDIGO 2012 CKD guideline: behind the scenes, need for guidance, and a framework for moving forward. Kidney Int 85(1):49–61
Davenport MS, Khalatbari S, Cohan RH, Ellis JH (2013) Contrast medium–induced nephrotoxicity risk assessment in adult inpatients: a comparison of serum creatinine level–and estimated glomerular filtration rate–based screening methods. Radiology 269(1):92–100
Rydahl C, Thomsen HS, Marckmann P (2008) High prevalence of nephrogenic systemic fibrosis in chronic renal failure patients exposed to gadodiamide, a gadolinium-containing magnetic resonance contrast agent. Invest Radiol 43(2):141–144
Thomsen H, Bellin M-F, Jakobsen J, Webb JW (2014) Contrast media classification and terminology. In: Thomsen HS, Webb JAW (eds). Contrast media. Medical radiology. Berlin: Springer, pp 3–11. doi:10.1007/174_2013_864
Morcos S, Thomsen H (2001) Adverse reactions to iodinated contrast media. Eur Radiol 11(7):1267–1275
Beckett KR, Moriarity AK, Langer JM (2015) Safe use of contrast media: what the radiologist needs to know. RadioGraphics 35(6):1738–1750. doi:10.1148/rg.2015150033
Davenport MS, Cohan RH, Ellis JH (2015) Contrast media controversies in 2015: imaging patients with renal impairment or risk of contrast reaction. Am J Roentgenol 204(6):1174–1181. doi:10.2214/AJR.14.14259
Katzberg RW, Lamba R (2009) Contrast-induced nephropathy after intravenous administration: fact or fiction? Radiol Clin North Am 47(5):789–800
Bartels ED, Brun G, Gammeltoft A, GjØrup PA (1954) Acute Annria following intravenous pyelography in a patient with myelomatosis. Acta Medica Scand 150(4):297–302
Murphy SW, Barrett BJ, Parfrey PS (2000) Contrast nephropathy. J Am Soc Nephrol 11(1):177–182
Hou SH, Bushinsky DA, Wish JB, Cohen JJ, Harrington JT (1983) Hospital-acquired renal insufficiency: a prospective study. Am J Med 74(2):243–248
Nash K, Hafeez A, Hou S (2002) Hospital-acquired renal insufficiency. Am J Kidney Dis 39(5):930–936
Rao QA, Newhouse JH (2006) Risk of nephropathy after intravenous administration of contrast material: a critical literature analysis 1. Radiology 239(2):392–397
Moore R, Steinberg E, Powe N, et al. (1992) Nephrotoxicity of high-osmolality versus low-osmolality contrast media: randomized clinical trial. Radiology 182(3):649–655
Lufft V, Hoogestraat-Lufft L, Fels LM, et al. (2002) Contrast media nephropathy: intravenous CT angiography versus intraarterial digital subtraction angiography in renal artery stenosis: a prospective randomized trial. Am J Kidney Dis 40(2):236–242
Cramer BC, Parfrey PS, Hutchinson TA, et al. (1985) Renal function following infusion of radiologic contrast material: a prospective controlled study. Arch Intern Med 145(1):87–89
Heller C, Knapp J, Halliday J, O’Connell D, Heller R (1991) Failure to demonstrate contrast nephrotoxicity. Med J Australia 155(5):329–332
Newhouse JH, Kho D, Rao QA, Starren J (2008) Frequency of serum creatinine changes in the absence of iodinated contrast material: implications for studies of contrast nephrotoxicity. Am J Roentgenol 191(2):376–382. doi:10.2214/AJR.07.3280
Moore A, Dickerson E, Dillman JR, et al. (2014) Incidence of nonconfounded post-computed tomography acute kidney injury in hospitalized patients with stable renal function receiving intravenous iodinated contrast material. Curr Probl Diagn Radiol 43(5):237–241
McDonald JS, McDonald RJ, Comin J, et al. (2013) Frequency of acute kidney injury following intravenous contrast medium administration: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Radiology 267(1):119–128
Davenport MS, Cohan RH, Khalatbari S, Ellis JH (2014) The challenges in assessing contrast-induced nephropathy: where are we now? Am J Roentgenol 202(4):784–789
McDonald JS, McDonald RJ, Carter RE, et al. (2014) Risk of intravenous contrast material–mediated acute kidney injury: a propensity score–matched study stratified by baseline-estimated glomerular filtration rate. Radiology 271(1):65–73
McDonald RJ, McDonald JS, Bida JP, et al. (2013) Intravenous contrast material-induced nephropathy: causal or coincident phenomenon? Radiology 267(1):106–118
McDonald RJ, McDonald JS, Newhouse JH, Davenport MS (2015) Controversies in contrast material-induced acute kidney injury: closing in on the truth? Radiology 277(3):627–632
McCullough PA, Wolyn R, Rocher LL, Levin RN, O’Neill WW (1997) Acute renal failure after coronary intervention: incidence, risk factors, and relationship to mortality. Am J Med 103(5):368–375
Nikolsky E, Mehran R, Turcot D, et al. (2004) Impact of chronic kidney disease on prognosis of patients with diabetes mellitus treated with percutaneous coronary intervention. Am J Cardiol 94(3):300–305
Chao C (2013) Epidemiology, clinical features and diagnosis of contrast induced nephropathy: a brief review. Gen Med 1(102):2
Rihal CS, Textor SC, Grill DE, et al. (2002) Incidence and prognostic importance of acute renal failure after percutaneous coronary intervention. Circulation 105(19):2259–2264
Dashti-Khavidaki S, Moghaddas A, Heydari B, Khalili H, Lessan-Pezeshki M (2013) Statins against drug-induced nephrotoxicity. J Pharm Pharm Sci 16(4):588–608
Goergen SK, Rumbold G, Compton G, Harris C (2009) Systematic review of current guidelines, and their evidence base, on risk of lactic acidosis after administration of contrast medium for patients receiving metformin 1. Radiology 254(1):261–269
Elicker BM, Cypel YS, Weinreb JC (2006) IV contrast administration for CT: a survey of practices for the screening and prevention of contrast nephropathy. Am J Roentgenol 186(6):1651–1658
Herts BR, Schneider E, Poggio ED, Obuchowski NA, Baker ME (2008) Identifying outpatients with renal insufficiency before contrast-enhanced CT by using estimated glomerular filtration rates versus serum creatinine levels 1. Radiology 248(1):106–113
Kooiman J, Seth M, Share D, Dixon S, Gurm HS (2014) The association between contrast dose and renal complications post PCI across the continuum of procedural estimated risk. PloS One 9(3):e90233.
Trivedi H, Foley WD (2010) Contrast-induced nephropathy after a second contrast exposure. Ren Fail 32(7):796–801
Balemans CE, Reichert LJ, van Schelven BI, van den Brand JA, Wetzels JF (2012) Epidemiology of contrast material–induced nephropathy in the era of hydration. Radiology 263(3):706–713
Barrett B, Carlisle E (1993) Metaanalysis of the relative nephrotoxicity of high-and low-osmolality iodinated contrast media. Radiology 188(1):171–178
McCullough PA, Bertrand ME, Brinker JA, Stacul F (2006) A meta-analysis of the renal safety of isosmolar iodixanol compared with low-osmolar contrast media. J Am Coll Cardiol 48(4):692–699
Feldkamp T, Baumgart D, Elsner M, et al. (2006) Nephrotoxicity of iso-osmolar versus low-osmolar contrast media is equal in low risk patients. Clin Nephrol 66(5):322–330
Heinrich MC, Häberle L, Müller V, Bautz W, Uder M (2009) Nephrotoxicity of iso-osmolar iodixanol compared with nonionic low-osmolar contrast media: meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials 1. Radiology 250(1):68–86
Au TH, Bruckner A, Mohiuddin SM, Hilleman DE (2014) The prevention of contrast-induced nephropathy. Ann Pharmacother 48(10):1332–1342
Ellis JH, Cohan RH (2009) Reducing the risk of contrast-induced nephropathy: a perspective on the controversies. Am J Roentgenol 192(6):1544–1549
Jakobsen J, Berg K, Waaler A, Andrew E (1990) Renal effects of the non-ionic contrast medium iopentol after intravenous injection in healthy volunteers. Acta Radiol 31(1):87–91
Ellis JH, Cohan RH (2009) Prevention of contrast-induced nephropathy: an overview. Radiol Clin North Am 47(5):801–811
Thomsen HS (2007) Current evidence on prevention and management of contrast-induced nephropathy. Eur Radiol Suppl 17(6):33–37
Hiremath S, Akbari A, Shabana W, Fergusson DA, Knoll GA (2013) Prevention of contrast-induced acute kidney injury: is simple oral hydration similar to intravenous? A systematic review of the evidence. PLoS ONE 8(3):e60009
Mueller C, Buerkle G, Buettner HJ, et al. (2002) Prevention of contrast media–associated nephropathy: randomized comparison of 2 hydration regimens in 1620 patients undergoing coronary angioplasty. Arch Intern Med 162(3):329–336
Merten GJ, Burgess WP, Gray LV, et al. (2004) Prevention of contrast-induced nephropathy with sodium bicarbonate: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA 291(19):2328–2334
Navaneethan SD, Singh S, Appasamy S, Wing RE, Sehgal AR (2009) Sodium bicarbonate therapy for prevention of contrast-induced nephropathy: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Am J Kidney Dis 53(4):617–627
Zoungas S, Ninomiya T, Huxley R, et al. (2009) Systematic review: sodium bicarbonate treatment regimens for the prevention of contrast-induced nephropathy. Ann Intern Med 151(9):631–638
Dussol B, Morange S, Loundoun A, Auquier P, Berland Y (2006) A randomized trial of saline hydration to prevent contrast nephropathy in chronic renal failure patients. Nephrol Dial Transplant 21(8):2120–2126
Tepel M, Van Der Giet M, Schwarzfeld C, et al. (2000) Prevention of radiographic-contrast-agent–induced reductions in renal function by acetylcysteine. N Engl J Med 343(3):180–184
Kelly AM, Dwamena B, Cronin P, Bernstein SJ, Carlos RC (2008) Meta-analysis: effectiveness of drugs for preventing contrast-induced nephropathy. Ann Intern Med 148(4):284–294
Stenstrom DA, Muldoon LL, Armijo-Medina H, et al. (2008) N-acetylcysteine use to prevent contrast medium–induced nephropathy: premature phase III trials. J Vasc Interv Radiol 19(3):309–318
Hoffmann U, Fischereder M, Krüger B, Drobnik W, Krämer BK (2004) The value of N-acetylcysteine in the prevention of radiocontrast agent-induced nephropathy seems questionable. J Am Soc Nephrol 15(2):407–410
Bagshaw SM, Ghali WA (2005) Theophylline for prevention of contrast-induced nephropathy: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Arch Intern Med 165(10):1087–1093
Ix JH, McCulloch CE, Chertow GM (2004) Theophylline for the prevention of radiocontrast nephropathy: a meta-analysis. Nephrol Dial Transpl 19(11):2747–2753
Solomon R, Werner C, Mann D, D’Elia J, Silva P (1994) Effects of saline, mannitol, and furosemide on acute decreases in renal function induced by radiocontrast agents. N Engl J Med 331(21):1416–1420
Singh N, Lee JZ, Huang JJ, et al. (2014) Benefit of statin pretreatment in prevention of contrast-induced nephropathy in different adult patient population: systematic review and meta-analysis. Open Heart 1(1):e000127
Bonetti P, Lerman L, Napoli C, Lerman A (2003) Statin effects beyond lipid lowering—are they clinically relevant? Eur Heart J 24(3):225–248
Goldenberg I, Matetzky S (2005) Nephropathy induced by contrast media: pathogenesis, risk factors and preventive strategies. Can Med Assoc J 172(11):1461–1471
Cruz DN, Perazella MA, Bellomo R, et al. (2006) Extracorporeal blood purification therapies for prevention of radiocontrast-induced nephropathy: a systematic review. Am J Kidney Dis 48(3):361–371
Lehnert T, Keller E, Gondolf K, et al. (1998) Effect of haemodialysis after contrast medium administration in patients with renal insufficiency. Nephrol Dial Transpl 13(2):358–362
Marenzi G, Marana I, Lauri G, et al. (2003) The prevention of radiocontrast-agent–induced nephropathy by hemofiltration. N Engl J Med 349(14):1333–1340
Sterling KA, Tehrani T, Rudnick MR (2008) Clinical significance and preventive strategies for contrast-induced nephropathy. Curr Opin Nephrol Hypertens 17(6):616–623
Morcos S, Thomsen H, Webb J (2002) Members of contrast media safety committee of the european society of urogenital radiology (ESUR). Dialysis and contrast media. Eur Radiol 12(12):3026–3030
Cowper SE, Robin HS, Steinberg SM, et al. (2000) Scleromyxoedema-like cutaneous diseases in renal-dialysis patients. Lancet 356(9234):1000–1001
Besheli LD, Aran S, Shaqdan K, Kay J, Abujudeh H (2014) Current status of nephrogenic systemic fibrosis. Clin Radiol 69(7):661–668
Braverman IM, Cowper S (2010) Nephrogenic systemic fibrosis. F1000 medicine reports 2
Kuo PH, Kanal E, Abu-Alfa AK, Cowper SE (2007) Gadolinium-based MR contrast agents and nephrogenic systemic fibrosis 1. Radiology 242(3):647–649
Marckmann P, Skov L, Rossen K, Thomsen H (2008) Clinical manifestation of gadodiamide-related nephrogenic systemic fibrosis. Clin Nephrol 69(3):161–168
Marckmann P, Skov L (2009) Nephrogenic systemic fibrosis: clinical picture and treatment. Radiol Clin North Am 47(5):833–840
Weller A, Barber JL, Olsen ØE (2014) Gadolinium and nephrogenic systemic fibrosis: an update. Pediatr Nephrol 29(10):1927–1937
Thomsen HS, Marckmann P, Logager VB (2008) Update on nephrogenic systemic fibrosis. Magn Reson Imaging Clin N Am 16(4):551–560
Grobner T (2006) Gadolinium—a specific trigger for the development of nephrogenic fibrosing dermopathy and nephrogenic systemic fibrosis? Nephrol Dial Transpl 21(4):1104–1108
Marckmann P, Skov L, Rossen K, et al. (2006) Nephrogenic systemic fibrosis: suspected causative role of gadodiamide used for contrast-enhanced magnetic resonance imaging. J Am Soc Nephrol 17(9):2359–2362
Broome DR (2008) Nephrogenic systemic fibrosis associated with gadolinium based contrast agents: a summary of the medical literature reporting. Eur J Radiol 66(2):230–234
Bardin T, Richette P (2010) Nephrogenic systemic fibrosis. Curr Opin Rheumatol 22(1):54–58
Thomsen HS (2009) Nephrogenic systemic fibrosis: history and epidemiology. Radiol Clin North Am 47(5):827–831
Food and Drug Administration (September 9th 2010) Press release. http://www.fda.gov/Drugs/DrugSafety/ucm223966.htm. Accessed December 21st 2015
Thomsen HS, Webb JAW (2014) Appendix A: ESUR guidelines on contrast media version 8.1. In: Contrast media. Springer, pp 257–274
Prince MR, Zhang HL, Roditi GH, Leiner T, Kucharczyk W (2009) Risk factors for NSF: a literature review. J Magn Reson Imaging 30(6):1298–1308
Prince MR, Zhang H, Morris M, et al. (2008) Incidence of nephrogenic systemic fibrosis at two large medical centers 1. Radiology 248(3):807–816
Othersen JB, Maize JC, Woolson RF, Budisavljevic MN (2007) Nephrogenic systemic fibrosis after exposure to gadolinium in patients with renal failure. Nephrol Dial Transpl 22(11):3179–3185
Broome DR, Girguis MS, Baron PW, et al. (2007) Gadodiamide-associated nephrogenic systemic fibrosis: why radiologists should be concerned. Am J Roentgenol 188(2):586–592
Todd DJ, Kagan A, Chibnik LB, Kay J (2007) Cutaneous changes of nephrogenic systemic fibrosis: predictor of early mortality and association with gadolinium exposure. Arthritis Rheum 56(10):3433–3441
Marckmann P, Skov L, Rossen K, Heaf JG, Thomsen HS (2007) Case-control study of gadodiamide-related nephrogenic systemic fibrosis. Nephrol Dial Transplant 22(11):3174–3178
Shibui K, Kataoka H, Sato N, et al. (2009) A case of NSF attributable to contrast MRI repeated in a patient with Stage 3 CKD at a renal function of eGFR > 30 mL/min/1.73 m2. Jpn J Nephrol 51:676
Kalb R, Helm T, Sperry H, et al. (2008) Gadolinium-induced nephrogenic systemic fibrosis in a patient with an acute and transient kidney injury. Br J Dermatol 158(3):607–610
Abu-Alfa AK (2011) Nephrogenic systemic fibrosis and gadolinium-based contrast agents. Adv Chronic Kidney Dis 18(3):188–198
Graziani G, Montanelli A, Brambilla S, Balzarini L (2009) Nephrogenic systemic fibrosis an unsolved riddle. J Nephrol 22(2):203–207
Zhang B, Liang L, Chen W, Liang C, Zhang S (2015) An Updated Study to Determine Association between Gadolinium-Based Contrast Agents and Nephrogenic Systemic Fibrosis. PLoS ONE 10(6):e0129720
Reiter T, Ritter O, Prince MR, et al. (2012) Minimizing risk of nephrogenic systemic fibrosis in cardiovascular magnetic resonance. J Cardiovasc Magn Reson 14(1):31
Shaw DR, Kessel DO (2006) The current status of the use of carbon dioxide in diagnostic and interventional angiographic procedures. Cardiovasc Interv Radiol 29(3):323–331
Dunn DP, Kelsey NR, Lee KS, Smith MP, Mortele KJ (2015) Non-oncologic applications of diffusion-weighted imaging (DWI) in the genitourinary system. Abdom Imaging 40(6):1645–1654
Kono K, Inoue Y, Nakayama K, et al. (2001) The role of diffusion-weighted imaging in patients with brain tumors. Am J Neuroradiol 22(6):1081–1088
Zelhof B, Pickles M, Liney G, et al. (2009) Correlation of diffusion-weighted magnetic resonance data with cellularity in prostate cancer. BJU Int 103(7):883–888
Bruegel M, Holzapfel K, Gaa J, et al. (2008) Characterization of focal liver lesions by ADC measurements using a respiratory triggered diffusion-weighted single-shot echo-planar MR imaging technique. Eur Radiol 18(3):477–485
Sandrasegaran K, Sundaram CP, Ramaswamy R, et al. (2010) Usefulness of diffusion-weighted imaging in the evaluation of renal masses. Am J Roentgenol 194(2):438–445
Bruining DH, Bhatnagar G, Rimola J et al (2015) CT and MR enterography in Crohn’s disease: current and future applications. Abdom Imaging 1–10
Chan JHM, Tsui EYK, Luk SH, et al. (2001) MR diffusion-weighted imaging of kidney: differentiation between hydronephrosis and pyonephrosis. Clin Imaging 25(2):110–113
Verswijvel G, Vandecaveye V, Gelin G, et al. (2002) Diffusion-weighted MR imaging in the evaluation of renal infection: preliminary results. Jbr-Btr 85(2):100–103
Dumoulin CL, Cline HE, Souza SP, Wagle WA, Walker MF (1989) Three-dimensional time-of-flight magnetic resonance angiography using spin saturation. Magn Reson Med 11(1):35–46
Ivancevic MK, Geerts L, Weadock WJ, Chenevert TL (2009) Technical principles of MR angiography methods. Magn Reson Imaging Clin N Am 17(1):1–11
Wilson GJ, Maki JH (2009) Non–contrast-enhanced MR imaging of renal artery stenosis at 1.5 tesla. Magn Reson Imaging Clin N Am 17(1):13–27
Loubeyre P, Trolliet P, Cahen R, et al. (1996) MR angiography of renal artery stenosis: value of the combination of three-dimensional time-of-flight and three-dimensional phase-contrast MR angiography sequences. AJR Am J Roentgenol 167(2):489–494
Wyttenbach R, Braghetti A, Wyss M, et al. (2007) Renal artery assessment with nonenhanced steady-state free precession versus contrast-enhanced MR angiography 1. Radiology 245(1):186–195
Maki JH, Wilson GJ, Eubank WB, et al. (2007) Steady-state free precession MRA of the renal arteries: breath-hold and navigator-gated techniques vs CE-MRA. J Magn Reson Imaging 26(4):966–973
Maki JH, Wilson GJ, Eubank WB, et al. (2007) Navigator-gated MR angiography of the renal arteries: a potential screening tool for renal artery stenosis. Am J Roentgenol 188(6):W540–W546
Herborn CU, Watkins DM, Runge VM, et al. (2006) Renal arteries: comparison of steady-state free precession MR angiography and contrast-enhanced MR angiography 1. Radiology 239(1):263–268
Coenegrachts KL, Hoogeveen RM, Vaninbroukx JA, et al. (2004) High-spatial-resolution 3D balanced turbo field-echo technique for MR angiography of the renal arteries: initial experience 1. Radiology 231(1):237–242
Artz NS, Sadowski EA, Wentland AL, et al. (2011) Arterial spin labeling MRI for assessment of perfusion in native and transplanted kidneys. Magn Reson Imaging 29(1):74–82
Jin R, Lin B, Li D, Ai H (2014) Superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles for MR imaging and therapy: design considerations and clinical applications. Curr Opin Pharmacol 18:18–27
Bashir MR, Bhatti L, Marin D, Nelson RC (2015) Emerging applications for ferumoxytol as a contrast agent in MRI. J Magn Reson Imaging 41(4):884–898
Pai AB, Garba AO (2012) Ferumoxytol: a silver lining in the treatment of anemia of chronic kidney disease or another dark cloud? J Blood Med 3:77
Wu Y, Briley-Saebo K, Xie J, et al. (2014) Inflammatory bowel disease: MR-and SPECT/CT-based macrophage imaging for monitoring and evaluating disease activity in experimental mouse model—pilot study. Radiology 271(2):400–407
Serkova NJ, Renner B, Larsen BA, et al. (2010) Renal Inflammation: targeted iron oxide nanoparticles for molecular MR imaging in mice 1. Radiology 255(2):517–526
Neuwelt EA, Hamilton BE, Varallyay CG, et al. (2009) Ultrasmall superparamagnetic iron oxides (USPIOs): a future alternative magnetic resonance (MR) contrast agent for patients at risk for nephrogenic systemic fibrosis (NSF) & quest. Kidney Int 75(5):465–474
Ersoy H, Jacobs P, Kent CK, Prince MR (2004) Blood pool MR angiography of aortic stent-graft endoleak. Am J Roentgenol 182(5):1181–1186
Wilson SR, Burns PN (2010) Microbubble-enhanced US in body imaging: what role? 1. Radiology
Piscaglia F, Bolondi L (2006) The safety of Sonovue® in abdominal applications: retrospective analysis of 23188 investigations. Ultrasound Med Biol 32(9):1369–1375
Serra C, Menozzi G, Labate AMM, et al. (2007) Ultrasound assessment of vascularization of the thickened terminal ileum wall in Crohn’s disease patients using a low-mechanical index real-time scanning technique with a second generation ultrasound contrast agent. Eur J Radiol 62(1):114–121
Tamai H, Takiguchi Y, Oka M, et al. (2005) Contrast-enhanced ultrasonography in the diagnosis of solid renal tumors. J Ultrasound Med 24(12):1635–1640
Catalano O, Cusati B, Nunziata A, Siani A (2006) Active abdominal bleeding: contrast-enhanced sonography. Abdom Imaging 31(1):9–16
Christiansen JP, Lindner JR (2005) Molecular and cellular imaging with targeted contrast ultrasound. Proc IEEE 93(4):809–818
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Ethical approval
This article does not contain any studies with human participants or animals performed by any of the authors.
Conflict of Interest
Mahan Mathur declares that he has no conflict of interest Jeffrey C. Weinreb declares that he has no conflict of interest.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Mathur, M., Weinreb, J.C. Imaging patients with renal impairment. Abdom Radiol 41, 1108–1121 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00261-016-0709-8
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00261-016-0709-8