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Gas sensors based on mass-sensitive transducers part 1: transducers and receptors—basic understanding

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Abstract

The scientific interest in gas sensors is continuously increasing because of their environmental, medical, industrial, and domestic applications. This has resulted in an increasing number of investigations being reported in the literature and communicated at conferences. The present review, organized in two parts, addresses the peculiarities of gas sensors based on mass-sensitive transducers, starting with their structure and functionality and progressing to implementation and specific use. In this first part of the review, we discuss the constructional peculiarities and operation regions and the physical and chemical processes governing the reception and transduction functions and the way in which they influence the sensor sensing parameters/features. Scientific outcomes and trends in research into gas sensors based on mass sensitive transducers are also considered.

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Notes

  1. The transduction process is based on inertia and does not involve the gravitational field, even though it is usually present.

  2. The examples given in Fig. 1 do not represent the state of the art regarding the characterization of GGSs, but represent the most used approaches.

  3. Water vapor and oxygen are not only interfering gases/vapors but they can also deteriorate the receptor material.

  4. The analyte-receptor interaction can also produce other effects (see “ The quality factor and influence of the receptor and analyte on resonant MSTs” and “Nongravimetric responses of bulk sorption receptors ”). Some of them are detected by the MST and can increase the sensor sensitivity and selectivity. Other are not directly detected by MSTs but can act as disturbing factors producing additional interferences.

  5. The established terminology in the field addresses the odd multiples of the fundamental frequency as overtones and the even ones as harmonics.

  6. This dashpot is fictitious and does not reflect a viscous friction as in the mechanical approaches to viscous fluids. It is a way to display the mechanical energy loss in irreversible thermodynamic processes only.

  7. The assertion is almost correct for high-quality-factor (see “The quality factor and influence of the receptor and analyte on resonant MSTs”) TSMR transducers. If the quality factor is reduced by electrodes and/or sensing coatings, more accurate definitions are required.

  8. In the Eq. 9, from [45], the left side must be multiplied and divided by the active area to obtain the form given here. The constants k1 and k2 are negative by definition, so the form given here ensures better resemblance with the TSMR equation.

  9. The frequency shift dependence on the mass change in the form given in the text is an approximation of Eq. 2 from [58] respectively  Eq. 1 from [57] for low loads and small frequency changes.

  10. The value given by the definitions used in [70] is higher by a factor of 2π with respect to the one defined in [29]. This stems from the electrical definition of Q in [70], which simplifies the mathematical expressions.

  11. Gas phase over critical isotherm.

  12. Around the value for which the acoustoelectric attenuation has a maximum.

  13. Because of material porosity, the thickness of the layer is an irrelevant parameter, so instead, the resonance frequency shift of the TSMR induced by the loading with the sensing layer is usually given (6 kHz6 kHz in this case).

  14. In the case of high-Q crystals, the very small shift of the resonance frequency, spontaneously appearing to recover the “in-phase” (∆φ = 2nπ,  where n is an integer) feedback, ensures the compensation of the damping. This frequency change is acceptable if it remains at the level of the noise.

  15. The gas and liquid phases addressed here correspond to the mobile and stationary phases in chromatography.

  16. The phase transformation occurs at constant temperature and its enthalpy expresses the whole exchanged heat. For a reversible phase transition the relation follows from the definition of entropy.

  17. If the analyte-receptor “solution” can be regarded as a regular solution, then the mixing entropy will be, nevertheless, taken as zero.

  18. Entropy of mixing is almost the same for a polymer family because of its configurational character.

  19. The “catastrophe” means presumably negative values of the difference between the extrapolated glass-phase entropy and the solid-phase entropy (configurational entropy) below a given temperature, known as the “Kauzmann temperature.”

  20. The model was named so by Grate later, not in the reference cited.

  21. Lucklum et al. actually measured the complex reflection coefficient at the measuring cell connection.

  22. The theoretical approach to this interaction, made in the frame of quantum mechanics, does not actually use the “induced-dipole” concept, which was introduced ad hoc to give a friendlier, classical perspective. Sometimes the London interaction is addressed as “van der Waals interaction,” which is not correct because the latter includes also other weak interactions.

  23. For oxidizing gas the reaction path is different, involving an ionosorption process that competes with the oxygen one.

  24. Drago et al. refer to Lewis acids and Lewis basis and not to the acid/base character of hydrogen bond discussed before.

  25. Historically this parameter was determined on an empirical basis and symbolized by δ2.

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  1. Institute of Physical and Theoretical Chemistry, Eberhard-Karls University, Auf der Morgenstelle 15, 72076, Tübingen, Germany

    Alexandru Oprea & Udo Weimar

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Oprea, A., Weimar, U. Gas sensors based on mass-sensitive transducers part 1: transducers and receptors—basic understanding. Anal Bioanal Chem 411, 1761–1787 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00216-019-01630-7

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