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Mineralogy and geochemistry of silicate, sulfide, and oxide iron formations in Norway: evidence for fluctuating redox states of early Paleozoic marine basins

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Abstract

Laterally extensive silicate and sulfide iron formation associated with jasper (hematitic chert) beds and volcanogenic massive sulfide (VMS) deposits in Norway provide evidence of early mineral assemblages and redox conditions within coeval early Paleozoic seawater. Calculated detrital-free compositions record mixed hydrothermal (e.g., Fe, Cu) and seawater ± biogenic (e.g., Si, Ni, S, REE, P) components. Rare earth element (REE) patterns are characterized by small to large negative Ce anomalies and insignificant to locally large positive Eu anomalies, reflecting seawater REE carried to the seafloor by Fe–P-rich particles later modified by diagenetic processes. Protoliths of silicate iron formation precipitated in anoxic and intermittently euxinic deep waters by the diagenetic modification of amorphous Si–Fe oxyhydroxides and/or Si–Fe–OOH gels, based on possible modern analogues in the Red Sea. Diagenetic minerals include nontronite, greenalite, stilpnomelane, magnetite, manganosiderite, apatite, and iron sulfides. In sulfide iron formation, a local predominance of pyrrhotite over pyrite records highly reducing conditions caused by organic material. The geochemical data provide evidence for Mn–Fe–P shuttle and redox processes in a stratified basin with oxic or suboxic shallow waters and silica concentrations much higher than those of modern seawater. Hydrothermal plume-derived Fe present within the anoxic layer and near the chemocline formed mixed-valence oxyhydroxides and silicates and, intermittently, sulfides by reaction with aqueous Si and H2S, respectively, the latter derived from bacterial reduction of seawater sulfate at the chemocline. Major sustained fluxes of hydrothermally derived reductants (Fe2+, Mn2+, H2S, H2) produced from large seafloor systems such as Løkken may have changed the redox state of seawater in local, and possibly regional, basins from weakly or moderately oxic to intermittently anoxic or euxinic conditions.

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Acknowledgements

We thank Aivo Lepland (NGU) for helpful discussions and comments on possible diagenetic vs. water-column origins of iron-formation precursors. The late Frank Vokes (Geological Institute NTNU) donated some of the samples used in this study, including those of Kari Sand. Bjørn Willemoes-Wissing (NGU) assisted in early SEM and electron microprobe analyses. Brent Valentine (USGS) provided high-resolution images and EDS data obtained by field emission SEM. Harvey Belkin (USGS) supplied electron microprobe analyses of iron silicate minerals. Pat Shanks (USGS) provided sulfur isotope data on samples of sulfide iron formation. We also acknowledge Julie Dumoulin, Robert Blodgett, and John Repetski (all USGS) and Cris Little (University of Leeds) for examining fossil fragments in the silicate iron formation. We especially thank Tea Laurila for a detailed and thoughtful review of the manuscript, as well as Nils Jansson, Rob Robinson, and Ryan Taylor for helpful comments.

Funding

This study was funded by the Geological Survey of Norway. Any use of trade, firm, or product names is for descriptive purposes only and does not imply endorsement by the U.S. Geological Survey.

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  1. Geological Survey of Norway (NGU), Postal Box 6315 Torgarden, NO-7491, Trondheim, Norway

    Tor Grenne

  2. U.S. Geological Survey (Emeritus), National Center, MS 954, Reston, VA, 20192, USA

    John F. Slack

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  1. Tor Grenne
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Correspondence to Tor Grenne.

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Binary plots of P2O5 vs. (A) Er (representative of middle to heavy REEs) and (B) Ce anomaly for Løkken and Stord iron formations. Recalculated detrital-free values; bulk rock data are shown by gray shaded field (see Fig. 7) (PNG 144 kb)

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Grenne, T., Slack, J.F. Mineralogy and geochemistry of silicate, sulfide, and oxide iron formations in Norway: evidence for fluctuating redox states of early Paleozoic marine basins. Miner Deposita 54, 829–848 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00126-018-0840-2

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