Skip to main content
Log in

Representative roughness parameters for homogeneous terrain

  • Published:
Boundary-Layer Meteorology Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Objective requirements are drawn up for experimental determination of the roughness of homogeneous terrain, particularly with respect to matching of the observation array to a terrain situation with given fetch, blending height and displacement length. Some fifty well-documented published experiments over various surfaces, ranging from mobile surfaces (sea, or moving sand or snow) to forests and towns, are shown to meet these criteria and are compiled. It is shown that most presently popular terrain reviews underestimate actual terrain roughness lengths by about a factor two.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Agterberg, R. and Wieringa, J.: 1989, ‘Mesoscale Terrain Roughness Mapping of the Netherlands’, Roy. Neth. Meterol. Inst. Tech. Rep. TR-115.

  • Anderson, D. E., Verma, S. B., Clement, R. J., Baldocchi, D. D. and Matt, D. R.: 1986, ‘Turbulence Spectra of CO2, Water Vapor, Temperature and Velocity over a Deciduous Forest’,Agric. Forest Meteorol. 38, 81–99.

    Google Scholar 

  • Andreopoulos, J. and Wood, D. H.: 1982, ‘The Response of a Turbulent Boundary Layer to a Short Length of Surface Roughness’,J. Fluid Mech. 118, 143–164.

    Google Scholar 

  • Angle, R. P.: 1975, ‘Airflow from Mustard to Fallow’,Atmosphere 13, 110–125.

    Google Scholar 

  • Anthes, R. A.: 1980, ‘Boundary Layers in Numerical Weather Prediction’, Workshop on the Planetary Boundary Layer, Boulder 1978 (Publ.Am. Meteorol. Soc., Boston) pp. 247–277.

  • Arya, S. P. S.: 1975, ‘A Drag Partition Theory for Determining the Large-Scale Roughness Parameter and Wind Stress on Arctic Pack Ice’,J. Geophys. Res. 80, 3447–3454.

    Google Scholar 

  • Arya, S. P. S.: 1977, ‘Suggested Revisions to Certain Boundary Layer Parameterization Schemes used in Atmospheric Circulation Models’,Mon. Weath. Rev. 105, 215–227.

    Google Scholar 

  • Azevedo, P. V. and Verma, S. B.: 1986, ‘Aerodynamic Characteristics of Grain Sorghum’,Agric Forest Meteorol. 38, 193–204.

    Google Scholar 

  • Baldocchi, D. D., Verma, S. B. and Rosenberg, N. J.: 1983, ‘Characteristics of Air Flow Above and Within Soybean Canopies’,Boundary-Layer Meteorol. 25, 43–54.

    Google Scholar 

  • Baumgartner, A.: 1956, ‘Untersuchungen über den Wärme- und Wasserhaushalt eines jungen Waldes’,Ber. Deutsch. Wetterd. 28.

  • Belitz, H. J., Kottmeier, C., Hartig, R. and Stuckenberg, H. U.: 1987, ‘Zur aerodynamischen Rauhigkeit arktischer Meereisflächen’,Meteorol. Rundschau 40, 97–107.

    Google Scholar 

  • Beljaars, A. C. M.: 1982, ‘The Derivation of Fluxes from Profiles in Perturbed Areas’,Boundary-Layer Meteorol. 24, 35–55.

    Google Scholar 

  • Beljaars, A. C. M.: 1987a, ‘On the Memory of Wind Standard Deviation for Upstream Roughness’,Boundary-Layer Meteorol. 38, 95–101.

    Google Scholar 

  • Beljaars, A. C. M.: 1987b, ‘The Measurement of Gustiness at Routine Wind Stations — A Review’,Roy. Neth. Meteorol. Inst. Sc. Rep. WR-87-11 (WMO Instr. Meth. Obs. Rep. 31).

  • Beljaars, A. C. M. and Holtslag, A. A. M.: 1991, ‘On Flux Parameterization over Land Surfaces for Atmospheric Models’,J. Appl. Meteorol. 30, 327–341.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bergen, J. D.: 1987, ‘A Vertical Profile of Lateral and Longitudinal Turbulence over a Forest Stand’,Prepr. 18th Am. Meteorol. Soc. Conf. Agric. and Forest Meteorol (Lafayette) pp. 193–195.

  • Bergström, H. and Högström, U.: 1989, ‘Turbulent Exchange above a Pine Forest, II: Organized Structures’,Boundary-Layer Meteorol. 49, 231–263.

    Google Scholar 

  • Biétry, J., Sacré, C. and Simiu, E.: 1978 ‘Mean Wind Profiles and Change of Terrain Roughness’,J. Struct. Div. Am. Soc. Civ. Engin. 104, 1585–1593.

    Google Scholar 

  • Blackadar, A. K., Panofsky, H. A., Glass, P. E. and Boogaard, J. F.: 1967, ‘Determination of the Effect of Roughness Change on the Wind Profile’,Phys. Fluids 10, S209–211.

    Google Scholar 

  • Blackadar, A. K. and Tennekes, H.: 1968, ‘Asymptotic Similarity in Neutral Barotropic Boundary Layers’,J. Atmos. Sci. 25, 1015–1020.

    Google Scholar 

  • Borisenko, M. M.: 1977, ‘Razpredelenye wetraw nizhnem 200-metrowom sloye atmosfeery nad gorodom (Wind Distribution in the Lowest Atmospheric 200 m-Layer above a Town)’,Trudy Glav. Geofys. Obs. 368, Gidrometeoizdat, Leningrad.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bradley, E. F.: 1968, ‘Micrometeorological Study of Velocity Profiles and Surface Drag in the Region Modified by a Change in Surface Roughness’,Quart. J. Roy. Meteorol. Soc. 94, 361–379.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bradley, E. F.: 1971, ‘The Influence of Thermal Stability on a Drag Coefficient Measured Close to the Ground’,Agric. Meteorol. 9, 183–190.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brook, R. R.: 1972, ‘Measurements of Turbulence in a City Environment’,J. Appl. Meteorol. 11, 443–450.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brooks, F. A.: 1961, ‘Need for Measuring Horizontal Gradients in Determining Vertical Eddy Transfers of Heat and Moisture’,J. Meteorol. 18, 589–596.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brutsaert, W.: 1975a, ‘Comments on Surface Roughness Parameters and the Height of Dense Vegetation’,J. Meteorol. Soc. Japan 53, 96–97.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brutsaert, W.: 1975b, ‘The Roughness Length for Water Vapor, Sensible Heat, and Other Scalars’,J. Atmos. Sci. 32, 2028–2031.

    Google Scholar 

  • Busch, N. E. and Kristensen, L.: 1976, ‘Cup Anemometer Overspeeding’,J. Appl. Meteorol. 15, 1328–1332.

    Google Scholar 

  • Businger, J. A.: 1974, ‘Aerodynamics of Vegetated Surfaces’,Proc. Sem. on Heat and Mass Transfer in the Environment of Vegetation (Dubrovnik, Yugoslavia) pp. 139–165, Scripta, Wash. D. C.

    Google Scholar 

  • Carson, D. J.: 1986, ‘Issues Concerning the Evaluation of Effective Surface Roughness of Heterogeneous Terrain’,Proc. ISLSCP Conf. Rome (ESA-SP-248) pp. 77–82.

  • Cats, G. J.: 1979, ‘Wind Profile Estimates up to 200 m from Synoptic Observations’, Roy. Neth. Meteor. Inst. Techn. Rep. V-326.

  • Cermak, J. E. and Edling, W. H.: 1987, ‘Three-Dimensional Turbulent Boundary Layer Along Roughness Strip’,Prepr. 7th Intern. Conf. Wind Engin. Aachen, Vol.1, 1–10.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chamberlain, A. C.: 1983, ‘Roughness Length of Sea, Sand and Snow’,Boundary-Layer Meteorol. 25, 405–409.

    Google Scholar 

  • Charnock, H.: 1955, ‘Wind Stress on a Water Surface’,Quart. J. Roy. Meteorol. Soc. 81, 639–640.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chen Fazu and Schwerdtfeger, P.: 1989, ‘Flux-Gradient Relationships for Momentum and Heat over a Rough Natural Surface’,Quart. J. Roy. Meterol. Soc. 115, 335–352.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chen Fazu: 1990, ‘Turbulent Characteristics over a Rough Natural Surface. I: Turbulent Structures; II: Responses of Profiles to Turbulence’,Boundary-Layer Meteorol. 52, 151–175 & 301–311.

    Google Scholar 

  • Claussen, M.: 1990, ‘Area Averaging of Surface Fluxes in a Neutrally Stratified, Horizontally Inhomogeneous Boundary Layer’,Atmos. Environ. 24A, 1349–1360.

    Google Scholar 

  • Claussen, M.: 1991, ‘Estimation of Areally-Averaged Surface Fluxes’,Boundary-Layer Meteorol. 54, 387–410.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cook, N. J.: 1985, ‘The Designer's Guide to Wind Loading of Building Structures. Part 1: Background, Damage Survey, Wind Data and Structural Classification’,Build. Res. Est. (Garston) Rep., Butterworths, U.K.

    Google Scholar 

  • Counihan, J.: 1971, ‘Wind Tunnel Determination of the Roughness Length as a Function of the Fetch and the Roughness Density of Three-Dimensional Roughness Elements’,Atmos. Environ. 5, 637–642.

    Google Scholar 

  • Covey, W.: 1963, ‘A Method for the Computation of Logarithmic Wind Profile Parameters and their Standard Errors’, In: E. R. Lemon (ed.),The Energy Budget at the Earth's Surface, Part II, Prod. Res. Rep. 72 U.S. Dept. Agric., Ithaca, N.Y., pp. 28–33.

    Google Scholar 

  • Davenport, A. G.: 1960, ‘Rationale for Determining Design Wind Velocities’,J. Struct. Div. Am. Soc. Civ. Engin. 86, 39–68.

    Google Scholar 

  • Deacon, E. L.: 1953, ‘Vertical Profiles of the Mean Wind in the Surface Layers of the Atmosphere’,Meteorol. Off. Geophys. Mem. 91, H.M. Stationery Off., U.K.

    Google Scholar 

  • Deacon, E. L.: 1979, ‘The Role of Coral Mucus in Reducing the Wind Drag over Coral Reefs’,Boundary-Layer Meteorol. 17, 517–521.

    Google Scholar 

  • De Bruin, H. A. R. and Moore, C. J.: 1985, ‘Zero-Plane Displacement and Roughness Length for Tall Vegetation, Derived from a Simple Mass Conservation Hypothesis’,Boundary-Layer Meteorol. 31, 39–49.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dobesch, H.: 1976, ‘Der Rauhigkeitsparameter und die Dicke der Verdrängungsschicht für Wind über verschiedenen natürlichen Unterlagen’,Archiv Meteorol. Geophys. Bioklim. A 25, 125–130.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dolman, A. J.: 1986, ‘Estimates of Roughness Length and Zero Plane Displacement for a Foliated and Non-Foliated Oak Canopy’,Agric. Forest Meteorol. 36, 241–248.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dubov, A. S. and Marunich, S. V.: 1973, ‘Structure of the Air Flow Above Forested Areas’,Atmos. Oc. Phys. 9, 362–365.

    Google Scholar 

  • Duchêne-Marullaz, P.: 1979, ‘Effect of High Roughness on the Characteristics of Turbulence in Cases of Strong Winds,Prepr. 5th Internat. Conf. Wind Engin., Fort Collins, paper II-8, 15 pp.

  • Elliott, W. P.: 1958, ‘The Growth of the Atmospheric Internal Boundary Layer’,Trans. Am. Geophys. Union 39, 1048–1054.

    Google Scholar 

  • Emeis, S.: 1990, ‘Pressure Drag of Obstacles in the Atmospheric Boundary Layer’,J. Appl. Meteorol. 29, 461–476.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fiedler, F. and Panofsky, H. A.: 1972, ‘The Geostrophic Drag Coefficient and the ‘Effective’ Roughness Length’,Quart. J. Roy. Meteorol. Soc. 98, 213–220.

    Google Scholar 

  • Foken, T. and Skeib, G.: 1980, ‘Genauigkeit und Auswertung von Profilmessungen zur Energieaustauschbestimmung’,Z. Meteorol. 30, 346–360.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ford, E. D.: 1976, ‘The Canopy of a Scots Pine Forest: Description of a Surface of Complex Roughness’,Agric. Meteorol. 17, 9–32.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gao, W., Shaw, R. H. and Paw U, K. T.: ‘Observation of Organized Structure in Turbulent Flow within and above a Forest Canopy’,Boundary-Layer Meteorol. 47, 349–377.

  • Garratt, J. R.: 1975, ‘Limitations of the Eddy-Correlation Technique for the Determination of Turbulent Fluxes Near the Surface’,Boundary-Layer Meteorol. 8, 255–259.

    Google Scholar 

  • Garratt, J. R.: 1977a, ‘Review of Drag Coefficients over Oceans and Continents’,Monthly Weath. Rev. 105, 915–929.

    Google Scholar 

  • Garratt, J. R.: 1977b, ‘Mean Monthly Stress and Aerodynamic Roughness over Australia’,CSIRO Div. Atmos. Phys. TP-29.

  • Garratt, J. R.: 1978, ‘Flux Profile Relations above Tall Vegetation’,Quart. J. Roy. Meteorol. Soc. 104, 199–211.

    Google Scholar 

  • Garratt, J. R.: 1980, ‘Surface Influence Upon Vertical Profiles in the Atmospheric Near-Surface Layer’,Quart. J. Roy. Meteorol. Soc. 106, 803–819.

    Google Scholar 

  • Garratt, J. R.: 1990, ‘The Internal Boundary Layer — A Review’,Boundary-Layer Meteorol. 50, 171–303.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gartshore, I. S. and De Croos, K. A.: 1979, ‘Equilibrium Boundary Layers over Very Rough Surfaces’, AGARD-CPP-271 (Fluid Dynam. Symp.) Paper 7.

  • Gash, J. H. C.: 1986, ‘Observations of Turbulence Downwind of a Forest-Heath Interface’,Boundary-Layer Meteorol. 36, 227–237.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gill, G. C., Olsson, L. E., Sela, J. and Suda, M.: 1967, ‘Accuracy of Wind Measurements on Towers or Stacks’,Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc. 48, 665–674.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gorham, E.: 1979, ‘Shoot Height, Weight and Standing Crop in Relation to Density of Monospecific Plant Stands’,Nature 279, 148–150.

    Google Scholar 

  • Grant, A. L. M. and Mason, P. J.: 1990, ‘Observations of Boundary-Layer Structure over Complex Terrain’,Quart. J. Roy. Meteorol. Soc. 116, 159–186.

    Google Scholar 

  • Guest, P. S. and Davidson, K. L.: 1991, ‘The Aerodynamic Roughness of Different Types of Sea Ice’,J. Geophys. Res. 96C, 4709–4721.

    Google Scholar 

  • Harper, J. R. and Wiseman, W. J.: 1977, ‘Temporal Variation of Surface Roughness over a Tundra Surface’,J. Geophys. Res. 82, 3495–3497 (Correction:J. Geophys. Res. 83, 968).

    Google Scholar 

  • Hessler, G.: 1987, ‘Variability of Turbulent Momentum Fluxes over a Tideland — A Case Study’,Meteorol. Rundschau 40, 108–118.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hicks, B. B., Drinkrow, R. L. and Grauze, G.: 1974, ‘Drag and Bulk Transfer Coefficients Associated with a Shallow Water Surface’,Boundary-Layer Meteorol. 6, 287–297.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hicks, B. B.: 1976, ‘Wind Profile Relations from the Wangara Experiment’,Quart. J. Roy. Meteorol. Soc. 102, 535–551.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hicks, B. B. and Wesely, M. L.: 1981, ‘Heat and Momentum Transfer Characteristics of Adjacent Fields of Soybeans and Maize’,Boundary-Layer Meteorol. 20, 175–185.

    Google Scholar 

  • Högström, U., Bergström, H., Smedman, A. S., Halldin, S. and Lindroth, A.: 1989, ‘Turbulent Exchange above a Pine Forest, I: Fluxes and Gradients’,Boundary-Layer Meteorol. 49, 197–217.

    Google Scholar 

  • Holmgren, B.: 1971, ‘Climate and Energy Exchange on a Sub-Polar Ice Cap in Summer, Part C: On the Katabatic Winds Over the NW Slope of the Ice-Cap. Variations of Surface Roughness’, Meteorol. Inst. Uppsala Univ. Medded. 109.

  • Holtslag, A. A. M.: 1984, ‘Estimates of Diabatic Wind Speed Profiles from Near-Surface Weather Observations’,Boundary-Layer Meteorol. 29, 225–250.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hunt, J. C. R.: 1971, ‘The Effect of Single Buildings and Structures’,Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. London A 269, 457–467.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hupfer, P.: 1978, ‘Zur Abschätzung der Schubspannung des Windes an der Meeresoberfläche bei kurzen Windwirklängen’,Gerlands Beitr. Geophys. 87, 263–266.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hussain, M. and Lee, B. E.: 1980, ‘A Wind Tunnel Study of the Mean Pressure Forces Acting on Large Groups of Low-Rise Buildings’,J. Wind Engin. Industr. Aerodyn. 6, 207–225.

    Google Scholar 

  • Iqbal, M., Khatry, A. and Seguin, B.: 1977, ‘A Study of the Roughness Effects of Multiple Windbreaks’,Boundary-Layer Meteorol. 11, 187–203.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jackson, B. S. and Carroll, J. J.: 1978, ‘Aerodynamic Roughness as a Function of Wind Direction over Asymmetric Surface Elements’,Boundary-Layer Meteorol. 14, 323–330.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jackson, N. A.: 1976, ‘The Propagation of Modified Flow Downstream of a Change in Roughness’,Quart. J. Roy. Meteorol. Soc. 102, 924–933.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jackson, P. S.: 1981, ‘On the Displacement Height in the Logarithmic Velocity Profile’,J. Fluid Mech. 111, 15–25.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jacobs, A. F. G. and Van Boxel, J. H.: 1988, ‘Changes of the Displacement Height and Roughness Length of Maize During a Growing Season’,Agric. Forest Meteorol. 42, 53–62.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jensen, M.: 1954, ‘Shelter Effect, Investigations into the Aerodynamics of Shelter and its Effects on Climate and Crops’, Danish Techn. Press, København, Denmark.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jensen, M.: 1958, ‘The Model-Law for Phenomena in Natural Wind’,Ingeniøren 2, 121–128.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jensen, M.: 1968, ‘Some Lessons Learned in Building Aerodynamics Research’,Proc. Internat. Conf. Wind Effects on Buildings and Structures, Ottawa 1967, University of Toronto Press, Vol. 1, pp. 1–18.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jensen, N. O.: 1978, ‘Change of Surface Roughness and the Planetary Boundary Layer’,Quart. J. Roy. Meteorol. Soc. 104, 351–356.

    Google Scholar 

  • Joffre, S. M.: 1982, ‘Momentum and Heat Transfers in the Surface Layer over a Frozen Sea’,Boundary-Layer Meteorol. 24, 211–229.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kalanda, B. D., Oke, T. R. and Spittlehouse, D. L.: 1980, ‘Suburban Energy Balance Estimates for Vancouver, B.C., Using the Bowen Ratio — Energy Balance Approach’,J. Appl. Meteorol. 19, 791–802.

    Google Scholar 

  • Karlsson, S.: 1986, ‘The Applicability of Wind Profile Formulas to an Urban-Rural Interface Site’,Boundary-Layer Meteorol. 34, 333–355.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kawatani, T. and Sadeh, W. Z.: 1971, ‘An Investigation of Flow over High Roughness’, Proj. Themis T.R.11, Engin. Res. Center Colorado St. Univ., Fort Collins.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kind, R. J.: 1990, ‘Mechanics of Aeolian Transport of Snow and Sand’,J. Wind Engin. Industr. Aerodyn. 36, 855–866.

    Google Scholar 

  • King, J. C., Mobbs, S. D., Rees, J. M., Anderson, P. S. and Culff, A. D.: 1989, ‘The Stable Antarctic Boundary Layer Experiment at Halley Station’,Weather 44, 398–405.

    Google Scholar 

  • King, J. C.: 1990, ‘Some Measurements of Turbulence over an Antarctic Ice Shelf’,Quart. J. Roy. Meteorol. Soc. 116, 379–400.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kitaigorodskii, S. A.: 1968, ‘On the Calculation of the Aerodynamic Roughness of the Sea Surface’,Izv. Atm. Ocean. Phys. 4, 498–502.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kondo, J.: 1971, ‘Relationship Between the Roughness Coefficient and Other Parameters’,J. Meteorol. Soc. Japan 49, 121–124.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kondo, J. and Sato, T.: 1982, ‘The Determination of the von Kármán Constant’,J. Meteorol. Soc. Japan 60, 461–471.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kondo, J. and Yamazawa, H.: 1986, ‘Bulk Transfer Coefficient over a Snow Surface’,Boundary-Layer Meteorol. 34, 123–135.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kustas, W. P. and Brutsaert, W.: 1986, ‘Wind Profile Constants in a Neutral Atmospheric Boundary Layer over Complex Terrain’,Boundary-Layer Meteorol. 34, 35–54.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kustas, W. P., Choudhury, B. J., Kunkel, K. E. and Gay, L. W.: 1989, ‘Estimate of the Aerodynamic Roughness Parameters over an Incomplete Canopy Cover of Cotton’,Agric. For. Meteorol. 46, 91–105.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kutzbach, J. E.: 1961, ‘Investigations of the Modification of Wind Profiles by Artificially Controlled Surface Roughness’, p. 71–113 in: H. H. Lettau, ‘Studies of the 3-Dimensional Structure of the Planetary Boundary Layer’, (Univ. Wisconsin Contr. Rep. DA-36-039-SC-80282).

  • Langleben, M. P.: 1972, ‘A Study of the Roughness Parameters of Sea Ice from Wind Profiles’,J. Geophys. Res. 77, 5935–5944.

    Google Scholar 

  • Langleben, M. P.: 1974, ‘On Wind Profiles over Sea Ice’ (and discusion with C. A. Paulson and N. Untersteiner),Geophys. Res. Lett. 1, 82–85 and 313–315.

    Google Scholar 

  • Legg, B. J., Long, I. F. and Zemroch, P. J.: 1981, ‘Aerodynamic Properties of Field Bean and Potato Crops’,Agric. Meteorol. 23, 21–43.

    Google Scholar 

  • Leonard, R. E. and Federer, C. A.: 1973, ‘Estimated and Measured Roughness Parameters for a Pine Forest’,J. Appl. Meteorol. 12, 302–307.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lettau, H. H.: 1969, ‘Note on Aerodynamic Roughness-Parameter Estimation on the Basis of Roughness-Element Description’,J. Appl. Meteorol. 8, 828–832.

    Google Scholar 

  • Leuning, R. and Attiwill, P. M.: 1978, ‘Mass, Heat and Momentum Exchange Between a Mature Eucalyptus Forest and the Atmosphere’,Agric. Meteorol. 19, 215–241.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lo, A. K.: 1990, ‘On the Determination of Zero-Plane Displacement and Roughness Length for Flow over Forest Canopies’,Boundary-Layer Meteorol. 51, 255–268.

    Google Scholar 

  • Long, I. F., Monteith, J. L., Pennman, H. L. and Szeicz, G.: 1964, ‘The Plant and Its Environment’,Meteorol. Rundschau 17, 97–101.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lumley, J. L. and Panofsky, H. A.: 1964,The Structure of Atmospheric Turbulence, Interscience, London, U.K.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lynch, R. A. and Bradley, E. F.: 1974, ‘Shearing Stress Meter’,J. Appl. Meteorol. 13, 588–591.

    Google Scholar 

  • Maat, N., Kraan, C. and Oost, W. A.: 1991, ‘The Roughness of Wind Waves’,Boundary-Layer Meteorol. 54, 89–103.

    Google Scholar 

  • Macklin, S. A.: 1983, ‘Wind Drag Coefficients Over First-Year Sea Ice in the Bering Sea’,J. Geophys. Res. 88C, 2845–2852.

    Google Scholar 

  • Marshall, J. K.: 1971, ‘Drag Measurements in Roughness Arrays of Varying Density and Distribution’,Agric. Meteorol. 8, 269–292.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mason, P. J.: 1988, ‘The Formation of Areally-Averaged Roughness Lengths’,Quart. J. Roy. Meteorol. Soc. 114, 399–420.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mayer, H.: 1975, ‘Beiträge zur Meteorologie eines Steppengebietes (Tsumeb/SWA) VII+VIII: Die Parameter des vertikalen Windprofils, Teil I+II’,Meteorol. Rundschau 28, 25–31 and 101–109.

    Google Scholar 

  • McBean, G. A.: 1972, ‘Instrument Requirements for Eddy Correlation Measurements’,J. Appl. Meteorol. 11, 1078–1084.

    Google Scholar 

  • McEwan, I. K.: 1991, ‘The Physics of Sand Transport by Wind’, Ph.D. Thesis, Univ. of Aberdeen, Scotland.

    Google Scholar 

  • Merry, M. and Panofsky, H. A.: 1976, ‘Statistics of Vertical Motion Over Land and Water’,Quart. J. Roy. Meteorol. Soc. 102, 255–260.

    Google Scholar 

  • Miyake, M.: 1965, ‘Transformation of the Atmospheric Boundary Layer Over Inhomogeneous Surfaces’, Sc. Rep. Dep. Atmos. Sc. Univ. Washington.

  • Monin, A. S. and Yaglom, A. M.: 1971, ‘Statistical Fluid Mechanics, Vol. 1: Mechanics of Turbulence’, MIT Press, Cambridge, USA.

    Google Scholar 

  • Munro, D. S. and Oke, T. R.: 1973, ‘Estimating Wind Profile Parameters for Tall Dense Crops’,Agric. Meteorol. 11, 223–228.

    Google Scholar 

  • Munro, D. S. and Oke, T. R.: 1975, ‘Aerodynamic Boundary-Layer Adjustment over a Crop in Neutral Stability’,Boundary-Layer Meteorol. 9, 53–61.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nemoto, S.: 1972, ‘Some Considerations on the Atmospheric Internal Boundary Layer of the Ground Surface’,Pap. Meteorol. Geophys. 23, 121–134.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nieuwstadt, F. T. M.: 1978, ‘The Computation of the Friction Velocityu * and the Temperature ScaleT * from Temperature and Wind Profiles by Least-Square Methods’,Boundary-Layer Meteorol. 14, 235–246.

    Google Scholar 

  • Oemraw, B.: 1984, ‘Beschuttingscorrectie Wind’, Roy. Neth. Meteorol. Inst. Tech. Rep. TR-52.

  • Oke, T. R.: 1978,Boundary Layer Climates, Methuen, U.K.

    Google Scholar 

  • Oliver, H. R.: 1971, ‘Wind Profiles in and Above a Forest Canopy’,Quart. J. Roy. Meteorol. Soc. 97, 548–553.

    Google Scholar 

  • Overland, J. E.: 1985, ‘Atmospheric Boundary Layer Structure and Drag Coefficients Over Sea Ice’,J. Geophys. Res. 90C, 9029–9049.

    Google Scholar 

  • Owen, P. R.: 1964, ‘Saltation of Uniform Grains in Air’,J. Fluid Mech. 20, 225–242.

    Google Scholar 

  • Paeschke, W.: 1938, ‘Experimentelle Untersuchungen zum Rauhigkeits- und Stabilitätsproblem in der bodennahen Luftschicht’,Beitr. Phys. fr. Atmos. 24, 163–189.

    Google Scholar 

  • Panofsky, H. A.: 1977, ‘Wind Structure in Strong Winds Below 150 m’,Wind Engineering 1, 91–103.

    Google Scholar 

  • Panofsky, H. A. and Dutton, J. A.: 1984, “Atmospheric Turbulence — Models and Methods for Engineering Applications’, Wiley, NY.

    Google Scholar 

  • Parlange, M. B. and Brutsaert, W.: 1989, ‘Regional Roughness of the Landes Forest and Surface Shear Stress Under Neutral Conditions’,Boundary-Layer Meteorol. 48, 69–81.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pasquill, F.: 1950, ‘The Aerodynamic Drag of Grassland’,Proc. Roy. Soc. London A202, 143–153.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pasquill, F.: 1972, ‘Some Aspects of Boundary Layer Description’,Quart. J. Roy. Meteorol. Soc. 98, 469–494.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pasquill, F.: 1974, ‘Special Meteorological Factors in Diffusion Calculations’,Atmospheric Diffusion, 2nd ed., Wiley, pp. 334–353.

  • Perrier, E. R., Robertson, J. M., Millington, R. J. and Peters, D. B.: 1972, ‘Spatial and Temporal Variations of Wind Above and Within a Soybean Canopy’,Agric. Meteorol. 10, 421–442.

    Google Scholar 

  • Peterson, E. W.: 1969a, ‘Modification of Mean Flow and Turbulent Energy by a Change in Surface Roughness Under Conditions of Neutral Stability’,Quart. J. Roy. Meteorol. Soc. 95, 561–575.

    Google Scholar 

  • Peterson, E. W.: 1969b,‘On the Relation Between the Shear Stress and the Velocity Profile after a Change in Surface Roughness’, and disc, with P. Bradshaw,J. Atmos. Sci. 26, 773–774 and 1353–1355.

    Google Scholar 

  • Peterson, E. W.: 1971, ‘Prediction of the Momentum Exchange Coefficient for Flow over Heterogeneous Terrain’,J. Appl. Meteorol. 10, 958–961.

    Google Scholar 

  • Peterson, E. W., Kristensen, L., and Su, C. C.: 1976, ‘Some Observations and Analysis of Wind over Non-Uniform Terrain’,Quart. J. Roy. Meteorol. Soc. 102, 857–869.

    Google Scholar 

  • Peterson, E. W., Busch, N. E., Jensen, N. O., Højstrup, J. Kristensen, L. and Petersen, E. L.: 1978, ‘The Effect of Local Terrain Irregularities on the Mean Wind and Turbulence Characteristics Near the Ground’, WMO-No. 510. (Symp. on BL Physics applied to Air Pollution, Nörrköping) pp. 45–50.

  • Peterson, E. W., Jensen, N. O. and Højstrup, J.: 1979, ‘Observations of Downwind Development of Windspeed and Variance Profiles at Bognaes and Comparison with Theory’,Quart. J. Roy. Meteorol. Soc. 105, 521–529.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pielke, R. A.: 1984,Mesoscale Meteorological Modeling, Academic Press, NY.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pinker, R. T. and Holland, J. Z.: 1988, ‘Turbulence Structure of a Tropical Forest’,Boundary-Layer Meteorol. 43, 43–63.

    Google Scholar 

  • Priestley, C. H. B.: 1959, ‘Estimation of Surface Stress and Heat Flux from Profile Data’,Quart. J. Roy. Meteorol. Soc. 85, 415–418.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rao, K. S., Wyngaard, J. C. and Coté, O. R.: 1974, ‘The Structure of the Two-Dimensional Internal Boundary Layer over a Sudden Change in Surface Roughness’,J. Atmos. Sci. 31, 738–746.

    Google Scholar 

  • Raupach, M. R., Thom, A. S. and Edwards, I.: 1980, ‘Windtunnel Study of Turbulent Flow Close to Regularly Arrayed Rough Surfaces’,Boundary-Layer Meteorol. 18, 373–397.

    Google Scholar 

  • Raupach, M. R. and Thom, A. S.: 1981, ‘Turbulence In an Above Plant Canopies’,Ann. Rev. Fluid Mech. 13, 97–129.

    Google Scholar 

  • Raynor, G. S.: 1971, ‘Wind and Temperature Structure in a Coniferous Forest and a Contiguous Field’,Forest Sci. 17, 351–363.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rider, N. E., Philip, J. R. and Bradley, E. F.: 1963, ‘The Horizontal Transport of Heat and Moisture —A Micrometeorological Study’,Quart. J. Roy. Meteorol. Soc. 89, 507–531.

    Google Scholar 

  • Riou, C.: 1984, ‘Simplified Calculation of the Zero-Plane Displacement from Wind-Speed Profiles’,J. Hydrol. 69, 351–357.

    Google Scholar 

  • Riou, C., Pieri, P. and Valancogne, C.: 1987, ‘Variation de la Vitesse du vent à l'intérieur et audessus d'une vigne’,Agric. Forest Meteorol. 39, 143–154.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sacré, C.: 1981, ‘Strong Wind Structure near a Sea-Land Roughness Discontinuity’,Boundary-Layer Meteorol. 21, 57–76.

    Google Scholar 

  • Saugier, B. and Ripley, E. A.: 1978, ‘Evaluation of the Aerodynamic Method of Determining Fluxes over Natural Grassland’,Quart. J. Roy. Meteorol. Soc. 104, 257–270.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schmid, H. P. and Oke, T. R.: 1990, ‘A Model to Estimate the Source Area Contributing to Turbulent Exchange in the Surface Layer over Patchy Terrain’,Quart. J. Roy. Meteorol. Soc. 116, 965–988.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schmidt, R. A.: 1982, ‘Vertical Profiles of Wind Speed, Snow Concentration and Humidity in Blowing Snow’,Boundary-Layer Meteorol. 23, 223–246.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schmidt, R. A.: 1986, ‘Transport Rate of Drifting Snow and the Mean Wind Speed Profile’,Boundary-Layer Meteorol. 34, 213–241.

    Google Scholar 

  • Seginer, I.: 1974, ‘Aerodynamic Roughness of Vegetated Surfaces’,Boundary-Layer Meteorol. 5, 383–393.

    Google Scholar 

  • Seginer, I.: 1975, ‘Atmospheric-Stability Effect on Windbreak Shelter and Drag’,Boundary-Layer Meteorol. 9, 383–400.

    Google Scholar 

  • Seguin, B.: 1973, ‘Rugosité du paysage et evapotranspiration potentielle à l'échelle régionale’,Agric. Meteorol. 11, 79–98.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shaw, R. H. and Pereira, A. R.: 1982, ‘Aerodynamic Roughness of a Plant Canopy, a Numerical Experiment’,Agric. Meteorol. 26, 51–65.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shaw, R. H., Den Hartog, G. and Neumann, H. H.: 1988, ‘Influence of Foliar Density and Thermal Stability on Profiles of Reynolds Stress and Turbulence Intensity in a Deciduous Forest’,Boundary-Layer Meteorol. 45, 391–409.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sheppard, P. A.: 1947, ‘The Aerodynamic Drag of the Earth's Surface and the Value of von Karman's Constant in the Atmosphere’,Proc. Roy. Soc. London A188, 208–222.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shiotani, M.: 1962, ‘The Relationship Between Wind Profiles and Stabilities of the Air Layer in the Outskirts of a City’,J. Meteorol. Soc. Japan 40, 315–329.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shir, C. C.: 1972, ‘A Numerical Computation of Air Flow Over a Sudden Change in Surface Roughness’,J. Atmos. Sci. 29, 304–310.

    Google Scholar 

  • Silversides, R. H.: 1979, ‘Forest and Airport Wind Speeds’,Atmos.-Ocean 16, 293–299.

    Google Scholar 

  • Smedman-Högström, A. S. and Högström, U.: 1978, ‘A Practical Method for Determining Wind Frequency Distributions for the Lowest 200 m from Routine Meteorological Data’,J. Appl. Meteorol. 17, 942–954.

    Google Scholar 

  • Smith, F. B. and Carson, D. J.: 1977, ‘Some Thoughts on the Specification of the Boundary Layer Relevant for Numerical Modelling’,Boundary-Layer Meteorol. 12, 307–330.

    Google Scholar 

  • Smith, S. D.: 1972, ‘Wind Stress and Turbulence over a Flat Ice Floe’,J. Geophys. Res.,77, 3886–3901.

    Google Scholar 

  • Smith, S. D.: Banke, E. G. and Johannessen, O. M.: 1970, ‘Wind Stress and Turbulence Over Ice in the Gulf of St. Lawrence’,J. Geophys. Res.,75, 2803–2812.

    Google Scholar 

  • Snyder, W. H.: 1972, ‘Similarity Criteria for the Application of Fluid Models to the Study of Air Pollution Meteorology’,Boundary-Layer Meteorol. 3, 113–134.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stearns, C. R.: 1970, ‘Determining Surface Roughness and Displacement Height’,Boundary-Layer Meteorol. 1, 102–111.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stearns, C. R.: 1971, ‘The Effect of Time-Variable Fluxes on Mean Wind and Temperature Profile Structure’,Boundary-Layer Meteorol. 1, 389–398.

    Google Scholar 

  • Steyn, D. G.: 1982, ‘Turbulence in an Unstable Surface Layer over Suburban Terrain’,Boundary-Layer Meteorol. 22, 183–191.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stull, R. B.: 1988,An Introduction to Boundary Layer Meteorology Kluwer, Netherlands.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sunde, A.: 1968, ‘Wind Structure at Svinøy’,Meteorol. Ann. 5, 17–29.

    Google Scholar 

  • Szeicz, G., Endrödi, G. and Tajchman, S.: 1969, ‘Aerodynamic and Surface Factors in Evaporation’,Water Res. Res. 5, 380–394.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tajchman, S. J.: 1981, ‘Comments on Measuring Turbulent Exchange Within and Above Forest Canopy’,Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc. 62, 1550–1559.

    Google Scholar 

  • Takeda, K.: 1966, ‘On Roughness Length and Zero-Plane Displacement in the Wind Profile of the Lowest Air Layer’,J. Meteorol. Soc. Japan 44, 101–108.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tanner, C. B. and Pelton, W. L.: 1960, ‘Potential Evapotranspiration Estimates by the Approximate Energy Balance Method of Penman’,J. Geophys. Res. 65, 3391–3413.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tanner, C. B.: 1963, ‘Wind and Wind Profile Measurements’,Soils Bull. 6, Section W, 9–13.

    Google Scholar 

  • Taylor, P. A.: 1983, ‘On Wakes and the Net Forces Produced by Surface-Mounted Obstacles in Neutrally Stratified Atmospheric Boundary Layers’,Boundary-Layer Meteorol.,27, 393–412.

    Google Scholar 

  • Taylor, P. A.: 1987, ‘Comments and Further Analysis on the Effective Roughness Length for Use in Numerical Three-Dimensional Models — A Research Note’,Boundary-Layer Meteorol. 39, 403–418.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tennekes, H.: 1973, ‘The Logarithmic Wind Profile’,J. Atmos. Sci. 30, 234–238.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tennekes, H.: 1982, ‘Similarity Relations, Scaling Laws and Spectral Dynamics’, in F. T. M. Nieuwstadt and H. Van Dop, (eds.),Atmospheric Turbulence and Air Pollution Modelling, Reidel, Dordrecht, pp. 37–68.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tetzlaff, G.: 1974, ‘Der Wärmehaushalt in der zentralen Sahara’, Ber. Inst. Meteorol. Klim. Univ. Hannover13.

  • Thom, A. S.: 1971, ‘Momentum Absorption by Vegetation’,Quart. J. Roy. Meteorol. Soc. 97, 414–428.

    Google Scholar 

  • Thom, A. S., Oliver, H. R. and Gash, J. H. C.: 1975, ‘Comparison of Aerodynamic and Energy Budget Estimates of Fluxes over a Pine Forest’,Quart. J. Roy. Meteorol. Soc. 101, 93–105.

    Google Scholar 

  • Thompson, N.: 1979, ‘Turbulence Measurements Above a Pine Forest’,Boundary-Layer Meteorol. 16, 293–310.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tieleman, H. W.: 1992, ‘Wind Characteristics in the Surface Layer over Heterogeneous Terrain’,J. Wind Engin. Industr. Aerodyn. 41, 329–340.

    Google Scholar 

  • Troen, I., Mortensen, N. G. and Petersen, E. L.: 1987, ‘WAsP Wind Analysis and Application Programme (User's Guide)’, Risø Nation. Lab., Denmark.

    Google Scholar 

  • Van Dop, H.: 1983, ‘Terrain Classifications and Derived Meteorological Parameters for Interregional Transport Models’,Atmos. Envir. 17, 1099–1105.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vermeulen, P. E. J.: 1986, ‘Experimenteel onderzoek ten behoeve van de modelbeschrijving van driedimensionale ruwheidsovergangen’, Rep. MT-TNO (Apeldoorn) Ref. 86-201.

  • Viswanadham, Y., Molion, L. C. B., Manzi, A. O., Sã, L. D. A., Silva Filho, V. P., André, R. G. B., Nogueira, J. L. M. and Dos Santos, R. C.: 1990, ‘Micrometeorological Measurements in Amazon Forest During GTE/ABLE 2A Mission’,J. Geophys. Res. 95D, 13669–13682.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vogt, R. and Jaeger, L.: 1990, ‘Evaporation from a Pine Forest, Using the Aerodynamic Method and Bowen Ratio Method’,Agric. For. Meteorol. 50, 39–54.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vugts, H. F. and Cannemeijer, F.: 1981, ‘Measurements of Drag Coefficients and Roughness Length at a Sea-Beach Interface’,J. Appl. Meteorol. 20, 335–340.

    Google Scholar 

  • Walk, O. and Wieringa, J.: 1988, ‘Tsumeb Studies of the Tropical Boundary-Layer Climate’, Wiss. Ber. Inst. Meteorol. Univ. Karlsruhe11.

  • Wallace, J. S., Lloyd, C. R., Roberts, J. and Shuttleworth, W. J.: 1984, ‘A Comparison of Methods for Estimating Aerodynamic Resistance of Heather in the Field’,Agric. For. Meteorol. 32, 289–305.

    Google Scholar 

  • Walmsley, J. L.: 1988, ‘On Theoretical Wind Speed and Temperature Profiles over the Sea with Applications to Data from Sable Island, Nova Scotia’,Atmos.-Ocean 26, 203–233.

    Google Scholar 

  • Walmsley, J. L.: 1989, ‘Internal Boundary-Layer Height Formulae — A Comparison with Atmospheric Data’,Boundary-Layer Meteorol. 47, 251–262.

    Google Scholar 

  • Watanabe, T. and Kondo, J.: 1990, ‘The Influence of Canopy Structure and Density upon the Mixing Length Within and Above Vegetation’,J. Meteorol. Soc. Japan 68, 227–235.

    Google Scholar 

  • Weiss, A. and Allen, L. H.: 1976, ‘Vertical and Horizontal Air Flow Above Rows of a Vineyard’,Agric. Meteorol. 17, 433–452.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wessels, H. R. A.: 1984, ‘Distortion of the Wind Field by the Cabauw Meteorological Tower’,WMO Instr. and Obs. Meth. Rep. 15 (TECEMO Conf.) pp. 251–256.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wieringa, J.: 1971, ‘Tilt Errors and Precipitation Effects in Trivane Measurements of Turbulent Fluxes Over Open Water’,Boundary-Layer Meteorol. 2, 406–426.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wieringa, J.: 1973, ‘Gust Factors Over Open Water and Built-Up Country’,Boundary-Layer Meteorol. 3, 424–441.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wieringa, J.: 1976, ‘An Objective Exposure Correction Method for Average Wind Speeds Measured at a Sheltered Location’,Quart. J. Roy. Meteorol. Soc. 102, 241–253.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wieringa, J.: 1977, ‘Wind Representativity Increase Due to an Exposure Correction, Obtainable from Past Analog Station Wind Records’, WMO-No.480 (TECIMO Conf.), pp. 39–44.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wieringa, J.: 1980, ‘A Revaluation of the Kansas Mast Influence on Measurements of Stress and Cup Anemometer Overspeeding’,Boundary-Layer Meteorol. 18, 411–430.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wieringa, J.: 1981, ‘Estimation of Mesoscale and Local-Scale Roughness for Atmospheric Transport Modeling’, in C. de Wispelaere (ed.),Air Pollution Modeling and its Application, Plenum, N.Y., pp. 279–295.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wieringa, J.: 1983, ‘Description Requirements for Assessment of Non-Ideal Wind Stations — For Example Aachen’,J. Wind Engin. Industr. Aerodyn. 11, 121–131.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wieringa, J.: 1986, ‘Roughness-Dependent Geographical Interpolation of Surface Wind Speed Averages’,Quart. J. Roy. Meteorol. Soc. 112, 867–889.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wieringa, J.: 1989, ‘Shapes of Annual Frequency Distributions of Wind Speed Observed on High Meteorological Masts’,Boundary-Layer Meteorol. 47, 85–110.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wieringa, J.: 1992, ‘Updating the Davenport Terrain Roughness Classification’,J. Wind Engin. Industr. Aerodyn. 41, 357–368

    Google Scholar 

  • Wieringa, J. and Van der Veer, P. J. M.: 1976, ‘Nederlandse Windstations 1971–1974’, Roy. Neth. Meteorol. Inst. Tech. Rep. V-278.

  • Wood, N. and Mason, P. J.: 1990, ‘The Influence of Stability on Effective Roughness Lengths’,Prepr. 9th Am. Meteorol. Soc. Symp. on Turbulence & Diffusion (Roskilde), pp. 247–248.

  • Wooding, R. A., Bradley, E. F. and Marshall, J. K.: 1973, ‘Drag Due to Regular Arrays of Roughness Elements of Varying Geometry’,Boundary-Layer Meteorol. 5, 285–308.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wu, J.: 1980, ‘Wind Stress Coefficients Over Sea Surface Near Neutral Conditions. A Revisit’,J. Phys. Ocean. 10, 727–740.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wucknitz, J.: 1977, ‘Disturbance of Wind Profile Measurements by a Slim Mast’,Boundary-Layer Meteorol. 11, 155–169.

    Google Scholar 

  • Yersel, M. and Goble, R.: 1986, ‘Roughness Effects on Urban Turbulence Parameters’,Boundary-Layer Meteorol. 37, 271–284.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zhang, S. F., Oncley, S. P. and Businger, J. A.: 1988, ‘A Critical Evaluation of the von Kármán Constant from a New Surface Layer Experiment’,Prepr. 8th Am. Meteorol. Soc. Symp. on Turbulence & Diffusion (San Diego), pp. 148–150.

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Wiernga, J. Representative roughness parameters for homogeneous terrain. Boundary-Layer Meteorol 63, 323–363 (1993). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00705357

Download citation

  • Revised:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00705357

Keywords

Navigation