Skip to main content
Log in

Clostridium perfringens: A Dynamic Foodborne Pathogen

  • OriginalPaper
  • Published:
Food and Bioprocess Technology Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Clostridium perfringens is a spore-forming bacterium and natural inhabitant of soil and the intestinal tracts of many warm-blooded animals, including humans. The ubiquitous nature of this bacterium and its spores makes it a frequent problem for the food industry and establishments where large amounts of food are prepared. C. perfringens causes potentially lethal foodborne diseases in humans, including food poisoning and necrotic enteritis. This bacterium could be controlled properly following safety rules such as adequate heating and cooling of food during processing. Unfortunately, large C. perfringens outbreaks, sometimes with fatal outcomes are still frequently reported. This paper describes the main characteristics of C. perfringens that allow the bacterium to survive and grow in foods, and cause human disease as well as discusses strategies to control this microorganism during food processing.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Fig. 1

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Adak, G. K., Long, S. M., & O’Brien, S. J. (2002). Trends in indigenous foodborne disease and deaths, England and Wales: 1992 to 2000. Gut, 51, 832–841. doi:10.1136/gut.51.6.832.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Aguilera, M. O., Stagnitta, P. V., Micalizzi, B., & de Guzman, A. M. (2005). Prevalence and characterization of Clostridium perfringens from spices in Argentina. Anaerobe, 11, 327–334. doi:10.1016/j.anaerobe.2005.05.003.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ando, Y., Tsuzuki, T., Sunagawa, H., & Oka, S. (1985). Heat resistance, spore germination, and enterotoxigenicity of Clostridium perfringens. Microbiology and Immunology, 29, 317–326. doi:10.1111/j.1574-6968.1985.tb00883.x.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Billington, S. J., Wieckowski, E. U., Sarker, M. R., Bueschel, D., Songer, J. G., & McClane, B. A. (1998). Clostridium perfringens type E animal enteritis isolates with highly conserved, silent enterotoxin sequences. Infection and Immunity, 66, 4531–4536.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bos, J., Smithee, L., McClane, B., Distefano, R. F., Uzal, F., Songer, J. G., et al. (2005). Fatal Necrotizing colitis following a foodborne outbreak of enterotoxigenic Clostridium perfringens type A infection. Clinical Infectious Diseases, 40, e78–e83. doi:10.1086/429829.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brynestad, S., & Granum, P. E. (2002). Clostridium perfringens foodborne infections. International Journal of Food Microbiology, 74, 195–202. doi:10.1016/S0168-1605(01)00680-8.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brynestad, S., Synstad, B., & Granum, P. E. (1997). The Clostridium perfringens enterotoxin gene is on a transposable element in type A human food poisoning strains. Microbiology, 143, 2109–2115.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Carman, R. J., Sayeed, S., Li, J., Genheimer, C. W., Hiltonsmith, M. F., Wilkins, T. D., et al. (2008). Clostridium perfringens toxin genotypes in the feces of healthy North Americans. Anaerobe, 14, 102–108.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • de Joung, A. E. I., Rombouts, F. M., & Beumer, R. R. (2004). Behavior of Clostridium perfringens at low temperatures. International Journal of Food Microbiology, 97, 71–80. doi:10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2004.03.030.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fujioka, R. S., & Shizumura, L. K. (1985). Clostridium perfringens, a reliable indicator of stream water quality. Journal Water Pollution Control Federation, 57, 986–992.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fujisawa, T., Aikawa, K., Takahashi, T., Yamai, S., & Ueda, S. (2001). Occurrence of Clostridia in commercially available curry roux. J Food Hyg Soc Jpn., 42, 394–397.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Garcia, J. S., & Heredia, N. L. (2009) Foodborne Pathogens and Toxins: an overview. In Heredia, Wesley & Garcia (eds) Microbiologically Safe Foods. Wiley-Blackwell, New York, USA (in press).

  • Granum, P. E., & Richardson, M. (1991). Chymotrypsin treatment increases the activity of Clostridium perfringens enterotoxin. Toxicon, 29, 898–900. doi:10.1016/0041-0101(91)90227-I.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Heikinheimo, A. (2008). Diagnostics and molecular epidemiology of cpe-positive Clostridium perfringens type A. PhD Thesis. Department of Food and Environmental Hygiene, University of Helsinki, Finland.

  • Heredia, N. L., & Labbé, R. G. (2001). Clostridium perfringens. In J. S. García-Alvarado, & R. G. Labbé (Eds.), Guide to Foodborne Pathogens (pp. 133–142). New York, USA: John Wiley & Sons.

    Google Scholar 

  • Heredia, N. L., García-Alvarado, J. S., & Labbé, R. G. (1998). Alteration in sporulation, enterotoxin production and protein synthesis by Clostridium perfringens type A following heat shock. Journal of Food Protection, 61, 1143–1149.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Heredia, N., Ybarra, P., Hernández, C., & García, S. (2008). Extracellular protectants produced by Clostridium perfringens cells at elevated temperatures. Letters in Applied Microbiology, 48, 133–139. doi:10.1111/j.1472-765X.2008.02504.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jones, P. G., & Inouye, M. (1994). The cold-shock response — a hot topic. Molecular Microbiology, 11, 811–818.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Juneja, V. K., & Thippareddi, H. (2004). Control of Clostridium perfringens in a model roast beef by salts of organic acids during chilling. Journal of Food Safety, 93, 155–163.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Juneja, V. K., Thippareddi, H., & Friedman, M. (2006). Control of Clostridium perfringens in cooked ground beef by carvacrol, cinnamaldehyde, thymol, or oregano oil during chilling. Journal of Food Protection, 69, 1546–1155.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kokai-Kun, J., Songer, J., Czeczulin, J., Chen, F., & McClane, B. (1994). Comparison of Western immunoblots and gene detection assays for identification of potentially enterotoxigenic isolates of Clostridium perfringens. Journal of Clinical Microbiology, 32, 2533–2539.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Limón, J. C., Heredia, N. L., & García Alvarado, J. S. (2001). Cross protection by heat and cold shock to sublethal temperatures in Clostridium perfringens. Braz J Microbiol., 32, 110–112.

    Google Scholar 

  • Limón, J., Solis, L., García, S., & Heredia, N. (2007). Influence of GRAS substances on the acquisition of cold tolerance in C. perfringens. In: Proceddings of the Annual Conference of the Vereinigung fur Allgemeine Mikrobiologie (VAAN), 1–4 April 2007, Osnarbruck, Germany.

  • Lin, Y. T., & Labbé, R. G. (2003). Enterotoxigenicity and genetic relatedness of Clostridium perfringens isolates from retail foods in the United States. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 69, 1642–1646. doi:10.1128/AEM.69.3.1642-1646.2003.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Linch, M., Painter, J., Woodruff, R., & Braden, C. (2006). Surveillance for Foodborne-Disease Outbreaks—United States, 1998–2002. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 55, 1–34.

    Google Scholar 

  • McClane, B. A. (1996). An overview of Clostridium perfringens enterotoxin. Toxicon, 34, 1335–1343. doi:10.1016/S0041-0101(96)00101-8.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • McClane, B. A. (2005). Clostridial enterotoxins. In P. Durre (Ed.), Handbook on Clostridia (pp. 385–406). Florida, USA: Taylor and Francis.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • McClane, B. A. (2007). Clostridium perfringens. In M. Doyle, & L. Beuchat (Eds.), Food Microbiology, fundamentals and frontiers (Third edition) (pp. 423–445). Washington, DC, USA: American Society for microbiology.

    Google Scholar 

  • McDonel, J. L. (1986). Toxins of Clostridium perfringens types A, B, C, D, and E. In F. Doner, & J. Drews (Eds.), Pharmacology of bacterial toxins (p. 477). Oxford, England: Pergamon.

    Google Scholar 

  • Miwa, N., Nishina, T., Kubo, S., & Fujikura, K. (1996). Nested polymerase chain reaction for detection of low levels of enterotoxigenic Clostridium perfringens in animal feces and meat. Journal of Veterinary Medical Science, 58, 197–203.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Miwa, N., Nishina, T., Kubo, S., Atsumi, M., & Honda, H. (1998). Amount of enterotoxigenic Clostridium perfringens in meat detected by nested PCR. International Journal of Food Microbiology, 42, 195–200. doi:10.1016/S0168-1605(98)00082-8.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Morera, J., Rodriguez, E., & Gamboa, M. M. (1999). Determination of Clostridium perfringens in pork sausages from the Metropolitan area of Costa Rica. Archivos latinoamericanos de nutrición, 49, 279–282.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Phillips, D., Jordan, D., Morris, S., Jenson, I., & Sumner, J. (2008). A national survey of the microbiological quality of retail raw meats in Australia. Journal of Food Protection, 71, 1232–1236.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rahmati, T., & Labbe, R. G. (2008). Levels and toxigenicity of Bacillus cereus and Clostridium perfringens from retail seafood. Journal of Food Protection, 71, 1178–1185.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rodriguez-Romo, L. A., Heredia, N. L., Labbé, R. G., & Garcia-Alvarado, J. S. (1988). Detection of enterotoxigenic Clostridium perfringens in spices used in Mexico by dot blotting using a DNA probe. Journal of Food Protection, 61, 201–204.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rood, J. (1998). Virulence genes of Clostridium perfringens. Annual Review of Microbiology, 52, 333–360. doi:10.1146/annurev.micro.52.1.333.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sabah, J. R., Thippareddi, H., Marsden, J. L., & Fung, D. Y. (2003). Use of organic acids for the control of Clostridium perfringens in cooked vacuum-packaged restructured roast beef during an alternative cooling procedure. Journal of Food Protection, 66, 1408–1412.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sabah, J. R., Juneja, V. K., & Fung, D. Y. (2004). Effect of spices and organic acids on the growth of Clostridium perfringens during cooling of cooked ground beef. Journal of Food Protection, 67, 1840–1847.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Songer, J., & Meer, R. (1996). Genotyping of Clostridium perfringens by polymerase chain reaction is a useful adjunct to diagnosis of Clostridial enteric disease in animals. Anaerobe, 2, 197–203. doi:10.1006/anae.1996.0027.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • USDA-FSIS. (2001). Draft compliance guidelines for ready-to-eat meat and poultry products. Available at: www.fsis.usda.gov/OPPDE/rdad/FRPubs/97-013P/RTEGuide.pdf. Accessed December, 2008.

  • Villarreal, L., Heredia, N. L., & García-Alvarado, J. S. (2000). Changes in protein synthesis and acid tolerance of Clostridium perfringens type A as a result of an acid shock. Internatonal Microbiology, 3, 113–116.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Villarreal, L., Heredia, N. L., & García, S. (2002). Cold tolerance and changes in rates of synthesis of individual proteins of Clostridium perfringens as a result of cold pre-treatment. Acta Alimentaria, 31, 179–184. doi:10.1556/AAlim.31.2002.2.7.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Virginia, P., Micalizzi, B., & Stefanini de Guzmán, A. M. (2002). Prevalence of enterotoxigenic Clostridium perfringens in meats in San Luis, Argentina. Anaerobe, 8, 253–258. doi:10.1006/anae.2002.0433.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wen, Q. Y., & McClane, B. A. (2004). Detection of enterotoxigenic Clostridium perfringens type A isolates in American retail foods. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 70, 2685–2691. doi:10.1128/AEM.70.5.2685-2691.2004.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Willardsen, R. R., Busta, F. F., Allen, C. E., & Smith, L. B. (1978). Growth and survival of Clostridium perfringens during constantly rising temperatures. Journal Food Science, 43, 470–475. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2621.1978.tb02333.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Santos García.

Additional information

Meeting Presentation: Inocuidad Alimentaria 2007, Chihuahua, Mexico, October 2007 (Food Safety 2007).

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

García, S., Heredia, N. Clostridium perfringens: A Dynamic Foodborne Pathogen. Food Bioprocess Technol 4, 624–630 (2011). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11947-009-0182-2

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11947-009-0182-2

Keywords

Navigation