Abstract
Background and Goal
In the Netherlands about 40 million m3 of sediment has to be dredged annually for both maintenance and environmental reasons. Temporary upland disposal is the most widely adopted alternative for dredged sediments worldwide. For good management of temporary disposal sites, knowledge is needed on the processes controlling the behavior of the sediments during disposal. Therefore, a review of the literature was made to get an integrated overview about processes that take place during temporary disposal.
Ripening
After disposal of clayey sediments, the following spontaneous dewatering processes can be distinguished: sedimentation, consolidation, and ripening. Sedimentation and consolidation are relatively fast processes, whereas ripening can take up to several years. In a remediation perspective, the ripening of sediments is the most important dewatering process. Ripening, which may be subdivided into physical, chemical, and biological ripening, transforms sediment into soil. Physical ripening is the irteversible toss of water and results in the formation of soil prisms separated by shrinkage cracks. Continuing water loss causes a breaking up of the prisms into aggregates. The aggregates produced by this ongoing desiccation process usually remain quite large (>50 mm) and can only be further broken down by weathering processes like wetting and drying or by tillage. As a result of the aeration caused by physical ripening, also chemical and biological ripening take place. Chemical ripening can be defined as the changes in chemical composition due to oxidation reactions and leaching of soluble substances. Biological ripening is the result of the activity of all kinds of soil fauna and flora that develop as a result of aeration, including both the larger and the microscopic forms of life. Decomposition and mineralization of soil organic matter caused by micro-organisms can be seen as the most important aspect of biological ripening. Many interactions exist between the different ripening processes.
Conclusions and Outlook
Oxygenation of the dredged sediment is improved as a result of the natural ripening processes: the air-filled porosity increases, the aggregate size decreases, and the initially high respiration rates caused by chemical and biological ripening decreases. Therefore, conditions in the disposal site become more favorable for aerobic biodegradation of organic pollutants like Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAH) and mineral oil. It is concluded that the naturally occurring process of ripening can be used as a bioremediation technique. Ripening in an upland disposal site is an off-site technique, and therefore, the process could be enhanced by means of technological interference. However, it is concluded that the knowledge currently available about upland disposal is not sufficient to distinguish critical process steps during the ripening and bioremediation of PAH and mineral oil polluted sediments because of the complex relationships between the different ripening processes and bioremediation.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Absil LLM, Bakker T (1999): Inventory of bottom sediments, supply and destination of dredged material 1999-2010 (in Dutch). AKWA report, Ministry of Transport, Public Works and Water Management, Lelystad
Agteren van MH, Keuning S, Janssen DB (1998): Handbook on biodegradation and biological treatment of hazardous organic compounds. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht
AKWA (2001): Basic Document Decennial Scenario Bottom Sediments (in Dutch). AKWA report 01.014, Utrecht
Allmaras RR, Bttrwell RE, Voorhees WB, and Larson WE (1965) Aggregate size distribution in the row zone of tillage experiments. Soil Science Society of America Proceedings 29, 645–650
Bakker DM, Bronswijk JJB (1993): Heterogeneous oxygen concentrations in a structured clay soil. Soil Science 155, 309–315
Bal L (1982): Zoological ripening of soils. Agricultural Research Reports 850. Pudoc, Wageningen
Bayer LD, Gardner WH, Gardner WR (1972): Soil physics. 4th Edition. John Wiley & Sons, New York, NY
Bradford JM, Gupta SC (1986): Compressibility. In: KluteA (Ed.), Methods of Soil Analysis, Part 1. Physical and Mineralogical Methods-Agronomy Monograph no. 9 (2nd edition), pp 479–492. American Society of Agronomy, Madison, WI
Brandsch R, Nowak KE, Binder N, JastorffB (2001): Investigations concerning the sustainability of remediation by land deposition of tributyltin contaminated harbour sediments. Journal of Soils and Sediments 1, 234–236
Braunack MV, Dexter AR (1989): Soil aggregation in the seedbed: A review. I. Properties of aggregates and beds of aggregates. Soil & Tillage Research 14, 259–279
Breemen vanN, BuurmanP (1998): Soil Formation. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht
Breteler H, Duijn R, Goedbloed P, HarmsenJ (2001): Surface treatment of polluted sediment in an energy plantation. In: Ex Situ Biological Treatment Technologies, Proceedings of the Sixth International In Situ and On-Site Bioremediation Symposium, 4-7 June 2001, San Diego, California, Volume 6, pp 59–63. Battelle Press, Columbus OH
Bronswijk JJB, Evers-Vermeer JJ (1990): Shrinkage of Dutch clay soil aggregates. Netherlands Journal of Agricultural Science 38,175–194
Bronswijk JJB (1991): Magnitude, modeling and significance of swelling and shrinkage processes in clay soils. PhD-thesis Wage-ningen Agricultural University, Wageningen
Buol SW, McCracken RJ, Hole FD (1973): Soil genesis and classification. The Iowa State University Press, Ames, IA
Calmano W, Hong J, ForstnerU (1993): Binding and mobilization of heavy metals in contaminated sediments affected by pH and redox potential. Water Science and Technology28, 223–235
Chan KY, Dexter AR, McKenzie DC (1999): Categories of soil structure based on mechanical behaviour and their evaluation using additions of lime and gypsum a sodic Vertisol. Australian Journal of Soil Research 37, 903–911
Chertkov VY (2000): Using surface crack spacing to predict crack network geometry in swelling soils. Soil Science Society of America Journal 64, 1918–1921
ConradR (1999): Contribution of hydrogen to methane production and control of hydrogen concentrations in methanogenic soils and sediments. FEMS Microbiology Ecology 28,193–202
Cuypers C, Grotenhuis T, Joziasse J, RulkensW (2000): Rapid persulfate oxidation predicts PAH bioavailability in soils and sediments. Environmental Science and Technology 34,2057–2063
Cuypers C (2001): Bioavailability of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in soils and sediments, prediction of bioavailability & characterization of organic matter domains. PhD-thesis Wageningen University, Wageningen
Darwin, CR (1881): The formation of vegetable mould through the action of worms, with observations on their habits. Murray, London
Dasog GS, Acton DF, Mermut AR, Jong deE (1988): Shrink-swell potential and cracking in clay soils of Saskatchewan. Canadian Journal of Soil Science68, 251–260
DekkerJ (1981): Geotechnical aspects of use of ripened dredged material from ports in dike building (in Dutch). Polytechnisch Tijdschrift, bouwkunde, wegen- en waterbouw 36, 578–586
Dexter AR, Kroesbergen B, KuipersH (1984): Some mechanical properties of aggregates of top soils from the IJsselmeerpolders. 2. Remoulded soil aggregates and the effects of wetting and drying cycles. Netherlands Journal of Agricultural Science 32,215–227
Dexter AR (1988): Advances in characterization of soil structure. Soil & Tillage Research 11, 199–238
Dexter AR, Horn R, Kemper WD (1988): Two mechanisms for age-hardening of soil. Journal of Soil Science 39, 163–175
Duin van RHA (1976): Soil Technology, part B, Reclamation, ripening, and cultivation of soils (In Dutch), Lecture Material, Wageningen Agricultural University, Wageningen
Evangelou VP (1998): Environmental soil and water chemistry, principles and applications. John Wiley & Sons, New York, NY
Eijsackers H, Gestel vanCAM, Jonge deS, Muijs B, Slijkerman D (2001): Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon-polluted dredged sediments and earthworms: a mutual interference. Ecotoxicology 10, 35–50
Gtinski J, StepniewskiW (1985): Soil aeration and its role for plants. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL
Glopper RJ, Minten AGM, Winkels HJ (1992): Chemical ripening of the soil in Zuidelijk Flevoland (in Dutch), Flevobericht no. 332, Ministry of Transport, Public Works and Water Management, Lelystad
Grossman (1983): Entisoils. In: Wilding LP, Smeck NE, Hall GF (Eds.), Pedogenesis and soil taxonomy, II. The soil orders, pp. 55–90, Elsevier, Amsterdam
Haan deW, Otten KJ, Heynen JJM, Folkerts H, ElsmanM (1998): Field monitoring of ripening of dredged material at three sites in The Netherlands (preliminary results). Water Science and Technology 37, 371–378
HadasA (1990): Directional strength in aggregates as affected by aggregate volume and by a wet/dry cycle. Journal of Soil Science 41, 85–93
HarmsenJ (2001): Bioremediation of polluted sediments: a matter of time or effort. In: Phytoremediation, Wetlands, and Sediments, Proceedings of the Sixth International In Situ and On-Site Bioremediation Symposium, 4-7 June 2001, San Diego, California, Volume 5, pp 279–287. Battelle Press, Columbus OH
Harmsen J, BoumanL (2002): Bioremediation of polluted sediments: a matter of time or effort? - Part It. In: Remediation and beneficial reuse of contaminated sediments, Proceedings of the First International Conference on Remediation of Contaminated Sediments, 10-12 October 2001, Venice, Volume 3, pp 113- 119. Battelle Press, Columbus OH
HilM D, Warrick AW, Baker RS, RosenzweigC (1998): Environmental soil physics. Academic Press, San Diego, CA
Horn R, Taubner H, Wuttke M, BaumgartlT (1994): Soil physical properties related to soil structure. Soil & Tillage Research 30, 187–216
Hough BK (1957): Basic soils engineering. The Ronald Press Company, New York, NY
ImaiG (1980): Settling behaviour of clay suspensions. Japanese Society of Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering 20, 61–77
Janssen BH (1984): A simple method for calculating decomposition and accumulation of ‘young’ soil organic matter. Plant and Soil 76, 297–304
Kim DJ, Feyen J, VereeckenH (1993a): Prediction of dynamic hydraulic properties in a ripening soil. Geoderma 57, 231–246
Kim DJ, Feyen J, Vereecken H, Boels D, Bronswijk JJB (1993b): Quantification of physical ripening in an unripe marine clay soil. Geoderma 58, 67–77
Koenigsberg S, SandefurC (2001): Application of oxygen release compound: a six year review. In: In Situ Aeration and Aerobic Remediation, Proceedings of the Sixth International In Situ and On-Site Bioremediation Symposium, 4–7 June 2001, San Diego, California, Volume 10, pp 87–94. Battelle Press, Columbus OH
Konrad JM, AyadR (1997): Desiccation of a sensitive clay: field experimental observations. Canadian Geotechnical Journal 34, 929–942
Koorevaar P, Menelik G, DirksenC (1983): Elements of soil physics. Developments in Soil Science 13. Elsevier, Amsterdam
Kotterman M, Lieshout vanJ, Grotenhuis T, FieldJ (1999): Development of white rot fungal technology for PAH degradation. In: Bioremediation Technologies for Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbon Compounds, Proceedings of the Fifth International In Situ and On-Site Bioremediation Symposium, 19-22 April, San Diego, California, Volume 8, pp 69–74. Battelle Press, Columbus OH
Löser C, Zehnsdorf A, Hoffmann P, SeidelH (1999): Conditioning of heavy metal-polluted river sediments by Helophytes. International Journal of Phytoremediation 1, 339–359
Löser C, Seidel H, Hoffmann P, ZehnsdorfA (2000): Remediation of heavy metal-contaminated sediments by solid-bed bioleaching. Environmental Geology 40, 643–650
Ma, WC, Immerzeel J, Bodt J (1995): Earthworm and food interactions on bioaccumulation and disappearance in soil of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons: studies on phenanthrene and fluoran-thene. Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety 32, 226–232
McKenzie BM, Dexter AR (1988): Radial pressures generated by the earthwormAporrectodea rosea. Biology and Fertility of Soils 5, 328–332
Mensvoort vanMEF, Dent DL (1997): Acid sulphate soils. In: Lal R, Blum WH, Valentine C, Stewart BA (Eds.), Methods for assessment of soil degradation. Advances in Soil Science, pp 301–335. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL
Middelburg JJ (1989): A simple rate model for organic matter decomposition in marine sediments. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 53, 1577–1581
Misra RK, Dexter AR, Alston AM (1986): Penetration of soil aggregates of finite size. I. Blunt penetrometer probes. Plant and Soil 94, 59–85
Nocentini M, PinelliD (2001): Biodegradation of PAHs in aggregates of a low permeability soil. Soil and Sediment Contamination 10, 211–226
Oades JM (1993): The role of biology in the formation, stabilization and degradation of soil structure. Geoderma 56, 377–400
Olphen vanH (1977): An introduction to clay colloid chemistry: for clay technologists, geologists and soil scientists, 2nd Edition. John Wiley & Sons, New York, NY
Parr LF, Gardner WR, Elliot LF (1981): Water potential relations in soil microbiology. SSSA Special Publication Number 9, Soil Science Society of America, Madison, WI
PartheniadesE (1965): Erosion and deposition of cohesive soils. Proceedings / American Society of Civil Engineers 91, 105–139
Patrick WH, Gambrell RP, Faulkner SP (1996): Redox measurements of soils. In: Sparks DL, Page AL, Helmke PA, Bartels JM (Eds.), Methods of Soil Analysis, Part 3. Chemical Methods-SSSA Book Series no. 5, pp 1255–1273. Soil Science Society of America, Madison, WI
Pons LJ, Zonneveld IS (1965): Soil ripening and soil classification. Initial soil formation in alluvial deposits and a classification of the resulting soils. Publication 13, International Institute for Land Reclamation and Improvement, Wageningen
Pons LJ, Molen van der WH (1973): Soil genesis under dewatering regimes during 1000 years of polder development. Soil Science 116, 228–235
RappoldtC (1995): Measuring the millimetre-scale oxygen diffusivity in soil using microelectrodes. European Journal of Soil Science 46, 169–177
Riis V, Babel W, Pucci OH (2002): Influence of heaw metals on the microbial degradation of diesel fuel. Chemosphere 49, 559–568
Ritchie JT, Adams JE (1974): Field measurement of evaporation from soil shrinkage cracks. Soil Science Society of America Proceedings 38, 131–134
Ross S (1989): Soil processes, a systematic approach. Routledge, London
Rijniersce K (1983): A simulation model for soil ripening in the IJsselmeerpolders (in Dutch). PhD-thesis Wageningen Agricultural University, Wageningen
RijniersceK (1984): Crack formation in newly reclaimed sediments in the IJsselmeerpolders. In: Proceedings of the ISSS symposium on water and solute movement in heavy clay soils, 27-31 August 1984, Wageningen, pp 59–62. ILRI, Wageningen
Rijtema PE, Groenendijk P, Kroes JG (1999): Environmental impact of land use in rural regions, the development, validation and application of model tools for management and policy analysis. Imperial College Press, London
Schreven van DA (1962): The microbiological ripening of the soils in the IJssel-Lake polders (in Dutch). In Stairs H, Zuur AJ, Schreven van DA, Bosma WA (Eds.), Van Zee tot Land 32., pp 34–70. Tjeenk Willink, Zwolle
Selley RC (1976): An introduction to Sedimentology. Academic Press, London
Sextone AJ, Revsbech NP, Parkin TB, Tiedje JM (1985): Direct measurement of oxygen profiles and denitrification rates in soil aggregates. Soil Science Society of America Journal 49, 645–651
Shiel RS, Adey MA, LodderM (1988): The effect of successive wet/dry cycles on aggregate size distribution in a clay texture soil. Journal of Soil Science 39, 71–80
Sierra J, Renault P, VallesV (1995): Anaerobiosis in saturated soil aggregates: modelling and experimentEuropean Journal of Soil Science 46, 519–531
Singh SP, Tack FMG, Verloo MG (1998): Land disposal of heavy metal contaminated dredged sediments: a review of environmental aspects. Land Contamination and Reclamation 6, 149–158
Singh SP, Ma LQ, Tack FMG, Verloo MG (2000): Trace metal leachability of land-deposited dredged sediments. Journal of Environmental Quality 29, 1124–1132
Smith KA (1980): A model for the extent of anaerobic zones in aggregated soils, and its potential application to estimates of nitrification. Journal of Soil Science 31, 263–277
Soil Survey Staff (1975): Soil taxonomy, a basic system of soil classification for making and interpreting soil surveys. Agricultural handbook no. 436, Soil Conservation Service, US Department of Agriculture, Washington, DC
Southard RJ, Buol SW (1988): Subsoil blocky structure formation in some North Carolina Paleudults and Paleaquults. Soil Science Society of Americal Journal 52, 1069–1076
Stephens SR, Alloway BJ, Parker A, Carter JE, Hodson ME (2001): Changes in leacha bility of metals from dredged canal sediments during drying and oxidation. Environmental Pollution 114, 407–413
Tack FM, Lapauw F, Verloo MG (1997): Determination and fractionation of sulphur in a contaminated dredged sediment. Talanta 44, 2185–2192
Tate RL (1995): Soil microbiology. John Wiley & Sons, New York, NY
Terzaghi K, Peck RB (1967): Soil mechanics in engineering practice, 2nd Edition. John Wiley & Sons, New York, NY
Tichý R, Grotenhuis JTC, Rulkens WH, NýdlV (1996): Strategy for leaching of zinc from artificially contaminated soil. Environmental Technology 17, 1181–1192
Tol van AF (1985): Consolidation and ripening of dredged material (in Dutch). Bouwkunde en Civiele techniek 6, 35–42
Trapp S, KarlsonU (2001): Aspects of phytoremediation of organic pollutants. Journal of Soils and Sediments 1, 37–43
Utomo WH, Dexter AR (1981a): Tilth mellowing. Journal of Soil Science 32, 187–201
Utomo WH, Dexter AR (1981b): Soil friability. Journal of Soil Science 32, 203–213
Veen van WW, Cuperus JG (1997): Clay originated from dredged material, Part 5, Review of ripening knowledge in foreign countries (in Dutch). DWW report 97.032, Ministry of Transport, Public Works and Water Management, Road and Hydraulic Engineering Division, Delft
Vermeulen J, Elsman MA (1999): Physical ripening of dredged material, model study-a combination of geotechnique and soil physics (in Dutch). AKWA report 99.016, Ministry of Transport, Public Works and Water Management, Road and Hydraulic Engineering Division, Delft
Vermeulen J, Dijk van S, Grotenhuis JTC, Joziasse J, Rulkens WH (2000): Accelerated physical ripening of PAH and oil contaminated sediment to distinguish critical steps in remediation. In: Contaminated Soil 2000, Proceedings of the Seventh International FZK/TNO Conference on Contaminated Soil, 18–22 September 2000, Leipzig, pp 1184–1185. Thomas Telford, London
Vervoort RW, Radcliffe DE, West LT (1999): Soil structure development and preferential solute flow. Water Resources Research 35, 913–928
Waard deCP, Velde van de CP (1981): Beneficial use of ripened dredged material in dike improvement (in Dutch). Polytechnisch Tijdschrift, bouwkunde, wegen- en waterbouw 36, 575–577
Warts CW, Dexter AR (1998): Soil friability: theory, measurement and the effects of management and organic matter content. European Journal of Soil Science 49, 73–84
White JC, Kelsey JW, Hatzinger PB, AlexanderM (1997): Factors affecting sequestration and bioavailability of phenanthrene in soils. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry 16, 2040–2045
Wichman BGHM (1999): Consolidation behaviourof gassy mud: theory and experimental validation. PhD-thesis, Delft University of Technology, Delft
Wilding LP, Hallmark CT (1984): Development of structural and microfabric properties in shrinking and swelling clays. In: Proceedings of the ISSS symposium on water and solute movement in heaw clay soils, 27–31 August 1984, Wageningen, pp 1–18, ILRI, Wageningen
Willet JR (1972): Soil physical behavior of spouted dredged material from the Rotterdam ports (in Dutch). De Ingenieur, Bouw en Waterbouwkunde 1, B1-B12
Willet JR, Cavelaars JC (1981): Environmental aspects of beneficial use of ‘ripened’ dredged material in dike construction (in Dutch). Polytechnisch Tijdschrift, bouwkunde, wegen- en waterbouw 36, 587–593
Wilson C, Jones KC (1993): Bioremediation of soil contaminated with polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs): a review. Environmental Pollution 81, 229–249
Yaalon DH, Kalmar D (1984): Extent and dynamics of cracking in a heaw clay soil with xeric moisture regime. In: Proceedings of the ISSS symposium on water and solute movement in heaw clay soils, 27–31 August 1984, Wageningen, pp 45–48. ILRI, Wageningen Zevenbergen CW, Haan de W, Peekel AF, Folkerts H, Polderman
WM (1999): Field monitoring of physical and chemical processes during ripening of dredged sediments in transit deposits with emphasis on acidification. In: CATS 4, Proceedings of Characterisation and Treatment of Sediments4, 15–17 September 1999, Antwerpen, pp 133–142
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Vermeulen, J., Grotenhuis, T., Joziasse, J. et al. Ripening of clayey dredged sediments during temporary upland disposal a bioremediation technique. J Soils & Sediments 3, 49–59 (2003). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02989469
Received:
Accepted:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02989469