Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Physiological substrates of normal deglutition

  • Published:
Dysphagia Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

An understanding of swallowing disorders rests mostly on a knowledge of the normal physiology of deglutition. This paper reviews current concepts of the processes involved in deglutition and summarizes quantitative data on the physiological events that form a normal swallow. Topics covered include stage descriptions of deglutition, neural regulation, sensory processes, and principles of motor control.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  1. Miller A:Physiol Rev 62:129–184, 1982 Deglutition

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  2. Code C (ed):Handbook of Physiology. Section 6. Alimentary Canal. Vol. 4. Motility. Bethesda, MD: American Physiological Society, 1968

    Google Scholar 

  3. Davenport H:Physiology of the Digestive Tract, 4th ed. Chicago: Year Book Medical Publishers, 1977

    Google Scholar 

  4. Johnson L (ed):Physiology of the Gastrointestinal Tract. New York: Raven Press, 1981

    Google Scholar 

  5. Logemann J:Evaluation and Treatment of Swallowing Disorders. San Diego: College-Hill Press, 1983

    Google Scholar 

  6. Roueche J:Dysphagia: An Assessment and Management Program for the Adult. Mineapolis: Sister Kenny Institute, Abbott-Northwestern Hospital, 1980

    Google Scholar 

  7. Haller A:Elementa Physiologiae IV. Lausanne, 1762

  8. Heuermann S:Physiologie III. Copenhagen Leipzig, 1753

  9. Magendie F:Precis Elementaire de Physiologie, 1817

  10. Dodds W, Hogan W, Lyden S, Stewart E, Stef J, Arndorfer R: Quantitation of pharyngeal motor function in normal human subjects.J Appl Physiol 39:692–696, 1975

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  11. Orlowski J, Dodds W, Linehan J, Dent J, Hogan W, Arndorfer R: Requirements for accurate manometric recording of pharyngeal and esophageal peristaltic pressure waves. Invest Radiol 17:567–572, 1982

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  12. Goyal R, Cobb B: Motility of the pharynx, esophagus and esophageal sphincters. In Johnson L (ed):Physiology of the Gastrointestinal Tract. New York: Raven Press, 1981, pp 359–391

    Google Scholar 

  13. Fisher M, Hendrix T, Hunt J, Murrills A: Relation between volume swallowed and velocity of the bolus ejected from the pharynx into the esophagus.Gastroenterology 74:1238–1240, 1978

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  14. Ingervall B, Lantz B: Significance of gravity on the passage of bolus through the human pharynx.Arch Oral Biol 18:351–356, 1973

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  15. Sessle B, Hannan A (eds):Mastication and Swallowing. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1976

    Google Scholar 

  16. Moller E: The chewing apparatus.Acta Physiol Scand 69:1–229, 1966

    Google Scholar 

  17. Moller E: Human muscle patterns. In Sessle B, Hannam A (eds):Mastication and Swallowing: Biological and Clinical Correlates. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1976

    Google Scholar 

  18. Bilt A van der, Otthoff LW, Glas HW, van der Weelen K, Bosman F: A mathematical description of the comminution of food during mastication in man.Arch Oral Biol 32:579–586, 1987

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  19. Anderson D: Mastication. In Code C (ed):Handbook of Physiology: Sec. 6. Alimentary Canal: Vol. 4. Motility. Bethesda, MD: American Physiological Society, 1968

    Google Scholar 

  20. Davenport H:A Digest of Digestion, 2d ed. Chicago: Year Book Medical, 1978

    Google Scholar 

  21. Mansson I, Sandberg N: Salivary stimulus and swallowing in man.Acta Otolaryngol 79:445–450, 1975

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  22. Reiter D: Concepts of dental occlusion.Am J Otolaryngol 1:245–255, 1980

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  23. Tomura Y, Ide Y, Kamijo Y: Studies on the morphological changes of the tongue movements during mastication by x-ray TV cinematography. In Kawamura Y, Dubner R (eds):Oral Sensory and Motor Functions. Tokyo: Quintessence, 1931, pp 45–52

    Google Scholar 

  24. Darian-Smith I: The trigeminal system. In Iggo A (ed)Handbook of Sensory Physiology. Vol. II. Somatosensory System. Berlin: Springer-Verlag, 1973, pp 271–314

    Google Scholar 

  25. Schaerer P, Legault JV, Zander HA: Mastication under anesthesia.Helv Odontol Acta 10:130–134, 1966

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  26. Ringel RL: Oral sensation and perception: selective review. Proceedings of Workshop: Speech and the Dentofacial Complex: The State of the Art.ASHA Rep 5:146–164, 1970

    Google Scholar 

  27. Dixon AD: Sensory nerve terminations in the oral mucosa.Arch Oral Biol 5:105–114, 1961

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  28. Green BG: Oral perception of the temperature of liquids.Percept Psychophysiol 39:19–24, 1986

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  29. Green BG: Thermal perception on lingual and labial skin.Percept Psychophysiol 36:209–220, 1984

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  30. Green BG, Gelhard B: Perception of temperature on oral and facial skin.Somatosens Res 4:191–200, 1987

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  31. Green BG: Heat pain thresholds in the oral-facial region.Percept Psychophysiol 38:110–114, 1985

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  32. Dubner R, Sessle BJ, Storey AT (1978)The Neural Basis of Oral and Facial Function. New York: Plenum Press, 1978

    Google Scholar 

  33. Kapila YV, Dodds WJ, Helm JF, Hogan WJ: Relationship between swallow rate and salivary flow.Dig Dis Sci 29:528–533, 1984

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  34. Heeneman H, Brown DH: Senescent changes in and about the oral cavity and pharynx.J Otolaryngol 15:214–216, 1987

    Google Scholar 

  35. Meyer J, Golden JS, Steiner N, Necheles H: Ptyalin content of human saliva in old age.Am J Physiol 119:600–611, 1937

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  36. Barlow SM: Mechanical frequency detection thresholds in the human face.Exp Neurol 96:253–261, 1987

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  37. Dyck PJ, Karnes J, Bushek W, Spring E, O'Brien P: Computer assisted sensory examination to detect and quantitate sensory deficit in diabetic neuropathy.Neurobehav Toxicol Teratol 5:697–704, 1983

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  38. Broekhuijsen ML, van Willigen JD: Factors influencing jaw position sense in man.Arch Oral Biol 28:387–391, 1983

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  39. van Willigen JD, Broekhuijsen ML: On the self-perception of jaw positions in man.Arch Oral Biol 28:117–122, 1983

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  40. Schneider JS, Diamond SG, Markham CH: Deficits in orofacial sensorimotor function in Parkinson's disease.Ann Neurol 19:275–282, 1986

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  41. Essick GK, Whitsel BL. Assessment of the capacity of human subjects and S-I neurons to distinguish opposing directions of stimulus motion across the skin.Brain Res Rev 10:187–212, 1985

    Article  Google Scholar 

  42. Essick GK, Whitsel BL: Factors influencing directional sensitivity: a correlative psychophysical and neurophysiological investigation.Brain Res Rev 10:213–230, 1985

    Article  Google Scholar 

  43. Netsell R, Barlow S: Specificity of perioral reflexes.Abstr Assoc Res Otolaryngol 169:135–136, 1986

    Google Scholar 

  44. Ongerboer de Visser BW: Anatomical and functional organization of reflexes involving the trigeminal system in man: jaw reflex, blink reflex, corneal reflex, and exteroceptive suppression. In: Desmedt JE (ed):Motor Control Mechanisms in Health and Disease. New York: Raven Press, 1983, pp 727–738

    Google Scholar 

  45. Smith A, Moore C, McFarland D, Weber C: Reflex responses of human lip muscles to mechanical stimulation during speech.J Mot Behav 17:148–167, 1985

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  46. Shedd D, Scatliff J, Kirchner J: The buccopharyngeal propulsive mechanism in human deglutition.Surgery 48:846–853, 1960

    Google Scholar 

  47. Profit WR: Muscle pressures and tooth position: review of current research.Aust Orthodont J 3:104–108, 1973

    Google Scholar 

  48. Doty R, Bosma J: An electromyographic analysis of reflex deglutition.J Neurophysiol 19:44–60, 1956

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  49. Lowe AA: The neural regulation of tongue movements.Prog Neurobiol 15:295–344, 1981

    Article  Google Scholar 

  50. Kawasaki M, Ogura H, Takenouchi S: Neurophysiologic observations of normal deglutition. I. Its relationship to the respiratory cycle. II. Its relationship to allied phone-mena.Laryngoscope 74:1747–1780, 1964

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  51. Vantrappen G, Hellemans J:Diseases of the Eosphagus. New York: Springer Verlag, 1974

    Google Scholar 

  52. Bosma J: Deglutition; pharyngeal stage.Physiol Rev 37:275–300, 1957

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  53. Sokol E, Heitmann P, Wolf B, Cohen B: Simultaneous cineradiographic and manometric study of the pharynx, hypopharynx, and cervical esophagus.Gastroenterology 51:660–674, 1966

    Google Scholar 

  54. Curtis DJ, Sepulveda GU: Epiglottic motion: video recording of muscular dysfunction.Radiology 148:473–477, 1983

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  55. Ekberg O, Sigurjonsson SV: Movement of the epiglottis during deglutition. A cineradiographic study.Gastrointest Radiol 7:101–107, 1982

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  56. Laitman J, Crelin E, Conlogue G: The function of the epiglottis in monkey and man.Yale J Biol Med 50:43–48, 1977

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  57. Negus V: The function of the epiglottis.J Anat 62:1–8, 1927

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  58. Atkinson M: Mechanisms protecting against gastroesophageal reflux: a review.Gut 3:1–15, 1962

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  59. Welch R, Luckmann K, Ricks P, Drake S, Gates G: Manometry of the normal esophageal sphincter and its alteration in laryngectomy.J Clin Invest 63:1036–1041, 1979

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  60. Winans C: The pharyngoesophageal closure mechanism: a manometric study.Gastroenterology 63:768–777, 1972

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  61. Zaino C, Jacobson H, Lepow H, Ozturk C:The Pharyngoesophageal Sphincter. Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas, 1970

    Google Scholar 

  62. Goyal R, Sangree M, Hersh T: Pressure inversion point at the upper high pressure zone and its genesis.Gastroenterology 59:754–759, 1970

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  63. Asoh R, Goyal R: Manometry and electromyography of the upper esophageal sphincter in the opossum.Gastroenterology 74:514–520, 1978

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  64. Winship DH: Upper esophageal sphincter: does it care about reflux?Gastroenterology 85:470–472, 1983

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  65. Fyke F, Code C: Resting and deglutition pressures in the pharyngoesophageal region.Gastroenterology 29:24–34, 1955

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  66. Code C, Schlegel J: Motor action of the esophagus and its sphincters. In: Code C (ed):Handbook of Physiology. Sec. 6. Alimentary Canal: Vol. 4. Motility. Bethesda, MD: American Physiological Society, 1968, pp 1821–1839

    Google Scholar 

  67. Trop D, Peeters R, Woestijne K: Localization of recording site in the esophagus by means of cardiac artifacts.J Appl Physiol 29:283–287, 1970

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  68. Butin J, Olsen A, Moersh H, Code C: A study of esophageal pressures in normal persons and patients with cardiospasm.Gastroenterology 23:278–293, 1953

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  69. Vantrappen G, Hellemans J: Studies on the normal deglutition complex.Am J Dig Dis 12:255–266, 1967

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  70. Humphries T, Castell D: Pressure profile of esophageal peristalsis in normal humans as measured by direct intracsophageal transducers.Am J Dig Dis 22:641–645, 1977

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  71. Stef J, Dodds W, Hogan W, Linchan J, Stewart E: Intraluminal esophageal manometry: an analysis of variables affecting recording fidelity of peristaltic pressures.Gastroenterology 67:221–230, 1974

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  72. Richter JE, Wu WC, Johns DN, Blackwell JN, Nelson JL, Castell JA, Castell DO: Esophageal manometry in 95 healthy adult volunteers: variability of pressures with age and frequency of “abnormal” contractions.Dig Dis Sci 32:583–592, 1987

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  73. Creamer B, Schlegel J: Motor responses of the esophagus to distension.J Appl Physiol 10:498–504

  74. Ingelfinger F: Esophageal motility.Physiol Rev 38:533–584, 1958

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  75. Orr W, Johnson L, Robinson M: Effect of sleep on swallowing, esophageal peristalsis, and acid clearance.Gastroenterology 86:814–819

  76. Sanchez G, Kramer P, Ingelfinger F: Motor mechanisms of the esophagus particularly of its distal portion.Gastroenterology 25:321–332, 1953

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  77. Cannon W: Esophageal peristalsis after bilateral vagotomy.Am J Physiol 19:436–444, 1907

    Google Scholar 

  78. Ruch T: Motility of the gastrointestinal tract. In: Ruch T, Patton H (eds):Physiology and Biophysics. Philadelphia: WB Saunders, 1965, pp 959–978

    Google Scholar 

  79. Kendall GPN, Thompson DG, Day SJ, Garvie N: Motor responses of the oesophagus to intraluminal distension in normal subjects and patients with oesophageal clearance disorder.Gut 28:272–279, 1987

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  80. Winship D, Viegas de Andrade S, Zboralshe F: Influence of bolus temperature on human esophageal function.J Clin Invest 49:243–250, 1970

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  81. Dodds W, Hogan W, Reid D, Stewart E, Arndorfer R: A comparison between primary esophageal peristalsis following wet and dry swallows.J Appl Physiol 35:851–857, 1973

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  82. Nebel O, Castell D: Lower esophageal sphincter pressure changes after food ingestion.Gastroenterology 63:778–783, 1972

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  83. Granger D, Barrowman J, Kvietys P:Clinical Gastrointestinal Physiology. Philadelphia: WB Saunders, 1985

    Google Scholar 

  84. Edwards DAW: Sphincter mechanisms in the gastrointestinal tract.Am J Dig Dis 12:267–276, 1967

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  85. Atkinson M: Monitoring oesophageal pH.Gut 28:509–514, 1987

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  86. Asoh R, Goyal R: Electrical activity of the opossum lower esophageal sphincterin vivo.Gastroenterology 74:835–840, 1978

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  87. Fleshler B, Hendrix T, Kramer P, Ingelfinger F: Characteristics and similarity of primary and secondary peristalsis.J Clin Invest 38:110, 1959

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  88. Clouse RF, Staiano A: Contraction abnormalities of the esophageal body in patients referred for manometry: a new approach to manometric classification.Dig Dis Sci 28:784–791, 1983

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  89. Hollis JB, Castell DO: Effect of dry swallows and wet swallows of different volumes on esophageal peristalsis.J Appl Physiol 38:1161–1164, 1975

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  90. Kahrilas PJ, Dent J, Dodds WJ, Hogan WJ, Arndorfer RC: A method for continuous monitoring of upper esophageal sphincter pressure.Dig Dis Sci 32:121–128, 1987

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  91. Feinstein B, Lindegard B, Nyman E, Wohlfart G: Morphological studies of motor units in normal human muscles.Acta Anat 23:127–142, 1955

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  92. Kramer P, Atkinson M, Wyman S, Ingelfinger F: The dynamics of swallowing. II. Neuromuscular dysphagia of pharynx.J Clin Invest 36:589–595, 1957

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  93. Doty R: Neural organization of deglutition. In Code C (ed):Handbook of Physiology. See 8 Alimentary Canal: Vol4. Motility. Bethesda, MD: American Physiological Society, 1968, pp 1861–1902

    Google Scholar 

  94. Schofield G: Anatomy of muscular and neural tissues in the alimentary canal. In Code C (ed):Handbook of Physiology. See 6. Alimentary Canal: Vol 4. Motility. Bethesda. MD: American Physiological Society, 1968, pp 1579–1627

    Google Scholar 

  95. Crist J, Gidda JS, Goyal RK: Intramural mechanism of esophageal peristalsis: roles of cholinergic and non-cholinergic nerves.Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 18:35–95, 1984

    Google Scholar 

  96. Reynolds JC, Quyang A, Cohen S: A lower esophageal sphincter reflex involving substance P.Am J Physiol 246:G346-G354, 1984

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  97. Torvik A: Afferent connections to the sensory trigeminal nuclei, the nucleus of the solitary tract and adjacent structures — an experimental study in the rat.J Comp Neurol 106:51–141, 1956

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  98. Weisbrodt N: Neuromuscular organization of esophageal and pharyngeal motility.Arch Intern Med 136:524–531, 1976

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  99. Christensen J: Origin of sensation in the esophagus.Am J Physiol 246:G221-G225, 1984

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  100. Schulze-Delrieu K, Christensen J: The esophagus. In KerKern F Jr, Blum AL (eds):The Gastroenterology Annual/3. New York: Elsevier, 1986, pp 1–27

    Google Scholar 

  101. Miller A: Significance of sensory inflow to the swallowing reflex.Brain Res 43:147–159, 1972

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  102. Doty R Sr: The concept of neural centers. In Tentress TC (ed):Simpler Networks and Behavior. Sunderland, MA: Sinauer, 1976, pp 251–256

    Google Scholar 

  103. Roman C, Gonella J: Extrinsic control of digestive tract motility. In Johnson L (ed):Physiology of the Gastrointestinal Tract: New York: Raven Press, 1981, pp 289–333

    Google Scholar 

  104. Doty R, Richmond W, Storey A: Effect of medullary lesions on coordination of deglutition.Exp Neurol 17:91–106, 1967

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  105. Jean A: Localisation et activité des neurones deglutiteurs bulbaires [Localization and activity of bulbar deglutition neurons].J Physiol Paris 64:227–268

  106. Holstege G, Graveland G, Bijker-Biemond C, Schuddeboom I: Location of motoneurons innervating soft palate. pharynx, and upper esophagus. Anatomical evidence for a possible swallowing center in thepontine reticular formation.Brain Behav Evol 23:47–62, 1983

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  107. Jean A, Car A, Roman C: Comparison of activity in pontine versus medullary neurons during swallowing.Exp Brain Res 22:211–220, 1975

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  108. Bereiter D, Berthoud H, Jeanrenaud B: Hypothalamic input to brainstem neurons responsive to oropharyngeal stimulation.Exp Brain Res 33–39, 1980

  109. Kubota K: Motoneurone mechanisms: suprasegmental controls. In Sessle BG, Hannam GG (eds)Mastication and Swallowing: Biological and Clinical Correlates. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1976, pp 60–75

    Google Scholar 

  110. Morest K: Experimental study of the projections of the nucleus of the tractus solitarius and the area postrema in the cat.J Comp Neurol 130:277–299, 1967

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  111. Sumi T: Modification of cortically-evoked rhythmic chewing and swallowing from midbrain and pons.Jpn J Physiol 21:489–506, 1971

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  112. Jean A, Car A: Inputs to the swallowing medullary neurons from the peripheral afferent fibers and the swallowing cortical areas.Brain Res 178:567–572, 1979

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  113. Kaada B: Stimulation and regional ablation of the amygdaloid complex with reference to functional representations. In Eleftherion B (ed):The Neurobiology of the Amygdala. New York: Plenum Press, 1972, pp 205–281

    Google Scholar 

  114. Miller A, Bowman J: Precentral cortical modulation of mastication and swallowing.J Dent Res 56:1154–1167, 1977

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  115. Morimoto T, Kawamura Y: Properties of tongue and jaw movements elicited by stimulation of the orbital gyrus in the cat.Arch Oral Biol 18:361–372, 1973

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  116. Penfield W, Rasmussen T:The Cerebral Cortex of Man. A Clinical Study of Localization of Function. New York: Macmillan, 1950

    Google Scholar 

  117. Sumi T: Some properties of cortically-evoked swallowing.Exp Neurol 20:359–365, 1969

    Google Scholar 

  118. Sumi T: Activity in single hypoglossal fibers during cortically induced swallowing and chewing in rabbits.Pflugers Arch 314:329–346, 1970

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  119. Walker A, Green H: Electrical excitability of the motor face area: a comparative study in primates.J Neurophysiol 1:152–165, 1938

    Google Scholar 

  120. Bieger D, Hockman C: Suprabulbar modulation of reflex swallowing.Exp Neurol 52:311–324, 1976

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  121. Meadows J: Dysphagia in unilateral cerebral lesions.J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 36:853–860, 1973

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  122. Winstein C: Neurogenic dysphagia: frequency, progression, and outcome in adults following head injury.Phys Ther 63:1992–1997, 1983

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  123. Carstens C: Behavioral treatment of functional dysphagia in a 12-year-old boy.Psychosomatics 23:195–196, 1982

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  124. Di Scipio W, Kaslon K: Conditioned dysphagia in cleft palate children after pharyngeal flap surgery.Psychosomatic Med 44:247–257, 1982

    Google Scholar 

  125. Di Scipio W, Kaslon K, Ruben R: Traumatically acquired conditioned dysphagia in children.Ann Otol Rhinol Laryngol 87:509–514, 1978

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  126. Koon R: Conversion dysphagia in children.Psychosomatics 24:182–184

  127. Penfield W, Faulk M Jr: The insula. Further observations on its function.Brain 78:445–470, 1955

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  128. Bailey P, Bremer F: A sensory cortical representation of the vagus nerve with a note on the effects of low blood pressure on the cortical electrogram.J Neurophysiol 1:405–412, 1938

    Google Scholar 

  129. Dell P, Olson R: Projections thalamique, corticales et cerelleuses des afferences viscerales vagales.CR Soc Biol 145:1084–1088, 1951

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  130. Wingate DL: Neurophysiology of the gastrointestinal tract. In Kern F Jr, Blum AL (eds):The Gastroenterology Annual 3. New York: Elsevier, 1986, pp 257–283

    Google Scholar 

  131. Wood JD: Enteric neurophysiology.Am J Physiol 247:G585-G592, 1984

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  132. Jean A: Control of the central swallowing program by inputs from the peripheral receptors: a review.J Autonom Nerv 10:225–251, 1984

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  133. Le Magnen J: Olfactory endocrine interactions and regulatory behavior. In Denton DA, Coghlan TP (eds):Olfaction and Tests, Vol 5. New York: Academic Press, 1975, pp 381–388

    Google Scholar 

  134. Le Magnen J: Central processing of sensory information in the control of feeding. In Autrum H, Ottosan D, Perl ER, Schmidt RF, Shimazu M, Willis WD (eds):Progress in Sensory Physiology. Vol 8. Berlin: Springer-Verlag, 1987, pp 95–128

    Google Scholar 

  135. Grillner S: Neurobiological bases of rhythmic motor acts in vertebrates.Science 228:143–149, 1985

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  136. Evoy W: Commentary on Kupferman and Weiss: the command neuron concept.Behav Brain Sci 1:19–20, 1978

    Article  Google Scholar 

  137. Delong M: Central patterning of movement.Neurosci Res Prog Bull 9:10–30, 1971

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  138. Kupfermann I, Weiss K: The command neuron concept.Behav Brain Sci 1:3–39, 1978

    Google Scholar 

  139. Willows AOD, Hoyle G: Neuronal network triggering a fixed action pattern.Science 166:1549–1551, 1969

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  140. Kennedy JG III, Kent R: Anatomy and physiology of deglutition and related functions. In Logemann J (ed):Seminars in Speech and Language, Vol 6. The Relationship between Speech and Swallowing. New York: Thieme-Stratton, 1985, pp 1–12

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Communicative Disorders, University of Wisconsin Madison, 1975 Willow Drive, 53706, Madison, WI, USA

    Jesse G. Kennedy III Ph.D. & Raymond D. Kent Ph.D.

Authors
  1. Jesse G. Kennedy III Ph.D.
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Raymond D. Kent Ph.D.
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Kennedy, J.G., Kent, R.D. Physiological substrates of normal deglutition. Dysphagia 3, 24–37 (1988). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02406277

Download citation

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02406277

Key words

Search

Navigation