Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Chemical analyses as validators in smoking cessation programs

  • Published:
Journal of Behavioral Medicine Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

This review addresses the use of chemical analyses to validate the smoking status of a participant in a smoking cessation program. Phamacokinetic and chemical validation literature leads to the conclusion that chemical analyses are most reliably used to confirm abstinence from smoking rather than as quantitative measures of nicotine intake or smoking activity. Analytical methodologies used in smoking validation studies are reviewed with their advantages and disadvantages. Close collaboration of behavioral scientists and analytical chemists is encouraged to validate the smoking status of participants in a smoking cessation program.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Abrams, D. B., Follick, M. J., Biener, L., Carey, K. B., and Hitti, J. (1987). Saliva cotinine as a measure of smoking status in field sellings.Am. J. Public Health 77: 846–848.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Barlow, R. D., Stone, R. B., Wald, N. J., and Puhakainen, E. V. J. (1987a). The direct barbituric acid assay for nicotine metabolites in urine: A simple colorimetric test for the routine assessment of smoking status and cigarette smoke intake.Clin. Chim. Acta 165: 45–52.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Barlow, R. D., Thompson, P. A., and Stone, R. B. (1987b). Simultaneous determination of nicotine, cotinine and five additional nicotine metabolites in the urine of smokers using pre-column derivatisation and high-performance liquid chromatography.J. Chromatogr. 419: 375–380.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Benkirane, S., Nicholas, A., Galteau, M.-M., and Siest, G. (1991). Highly sensitive immuno-assays for the determination of cotinine in serum and saliva. Comparison between RIA and an Avidin-biotin ELISA.Eur. J. Clin. Chem. Clin. Biochem. 29: 405–410.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Benowitz, N. L., and Jacob, P., III (1984). Daily intake of nicotine during cigarette smoking.Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. 35: 499–504.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Benowitz, N. L., Jacob, P., III, Jones, R. T., and Rosenberg, J. (1982). Interindividual variability in the metabolism and cardiovascular effects of nicotine in man.J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. 221: 368–372.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Benowitz, N. L., Kuyt, F., Jacob, P., III, Jones, R. T., and Osman, A. L. (1983). Cotinine disposition and effects.Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. 34: 604–611.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Benowitz, N. L., Porchet, H., and Jacob, P., III (1990). Pharmacokinetics, metabolism, and pharmacodynamics of nicotine. In Wonnacott, S., Russell, M. A. H., and Stolerman, I. P. (eds.),Nicotine Psychopharmacology: Molecular, Cellular and Behavioural Aspects, Oxford University Press, New York, pp. 112–157.

    Google Scholar 

  • Boltz, D. F., and Howell, J. A. (eds.) (1978). In Elving, P. J., Winefordner, J. D., and Kolthoff, I. M. (eds.),Colorimetric Determination of Nonmetals, 2nd ed., Chemical Analysis, Vol. 8, John Wiley & Sons, New York, pp. 79–80.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bridges, R. B., Combs, J. G., Humble, J. W., Turbek, J. A., Rehm, S. R., and Haley, N. J. (1990a). Population characteristics and cigarette yield as determinants of smoke exposure.Pharmacol. Biochem. Behav. 37: 17–28.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bridges, R. B., Combs, J. G., Humble, J. W., Turbek, J. A., Rehm, S. R., and Haley, N. J. (1990b). Puffing topology as a determinant of smoke exposure.Pharmacol. Biochem. Behav. 37: 29–39.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Butts, W. C., Kuehneman, M., and Widdowson, G. M. (1974). Automated method for determining serum thiocyanate, to distinguish smokers from nonsmokers.Clin. Chem. 20: 1344–1348.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cole, P. (1981). Smoking habits and carbon monoxide. In Greenhalg, R. M., (ed.),Smoking and Arterial Disease, Pitman Press, Bath, UK, pp. 74–83.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cummings, S. R., and Richard, R. J. (1988). Optimum cutoff points for biochemical validation of smoking status.Am. J. Public Health 78: 574–575.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Curvall, M., Kazemi-Vala, E., and Enzell, C. R. (1982). Simultaneous determination of nicotine and cotinine in plasma using capillary column gas chromatography with nitrogen-sensitive detection.J. Chromatogr. 232: 283–293.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Curvall, M., Elwin, C.-E., Kazemi-Vala, E., Warholm, C., and Enzell, C. R. (1990). The pharmacokinetics of cotinine in plasma and saliva from non-smoking healthy volunteers.Eur. J. Clin. Pharmacol. 38: 281–287.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Danhof, M., and Breimer, D. D. (1978). Therapeutic drug monitoring in saliva.Clin. Pharmacokinet. 3: 39–57.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Densen, P. M., Davidow, B., Bass, H. E., and Jones, E. W. (1967). A chemical test for smoking exposure.Arch. Environ. Health 14: 865–874.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Etzel, R. A. (1990). A review of the use of saliva cotinine as a marker of tobacco smoke exposure.Prev. Med. 19: 190–197.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Feyerabend, C., and Russell, M. A. H. (1990). A rapid gas-liquid Chromatographic method for the determination of cotinine and nicotine in biological fluids.J. Pharm. Pharmacol. 42: 450–452.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Feyerabend, C., Ings, R. M. J., and Russell, M. A. H. (1985). Nicotine pharmacokinetics and its application to intake from smoking.Br. J. Clin. Pharmacol. 19: 239–247.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Feyerabend, C., Bryant, A. E., Jarvis, M. J., and Russell, M. A. H. (1986). Determination of cotinine in biological fluids of non-smokers by packed column gas-liquid chromatography.J. Pharm. Phamacol. 38: 917–919.

    Google Scholar 

  • Galeazzi, R. L., Daenens, P., and Gugger, M. (1985). Steady-state concentrations of cotinine as a measure of nicotine-intake by smokers.Eur. J. Clin. Pharmacol. 28: 301–304.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Godin, J., and Hellier, G. (1989). Method for the determination of nicotine and cotinine in urine by high-performance liquid chromatography.J. Chromatogr. 488: 487–491.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Herning, R. I., Jones, R. T., Benowitz, N. L., and Mines, A. H. (1983). How a cigarette is smoked determines blood nicotine levels.Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. 33: 84–90.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jacob, P., III, Wilson, M., and Benowitz, N. L. (1981). Improved gas Chromatographic method for the determination of nicotine and cotinine in biological fluids.J. Chromatogr. 222: 61–70.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jacob, P., III, Benowitz, N. L., and Shulgin, A. T. (1988). Recent studies of nicotine metabolism in humans.Pharmacol. Biochem. Behav. 30: 249–253.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jarvis, M. J., Russell, M. A. H., Feyerabend, C., Eiser, J. R., Morgan, M., Gammage, P., and Gray, E. M. (1985). Passive exposure to tobacco smoke: Saliva cotinine concentrations in a representative population sample of non-smoking schoolchildren.Br. Med. J. 291: 927–929.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jarvis, M. J., Belcher, M., Vesey, C., and Hutchison, D. C. S. (1986). Low cost carbon monoxide monitors in smoking assessment.Thorax 41: 886–887.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jarvis, M. J., Tunstall-Pedoe, H., Feyerabend, C., Vesey, C., and Saloojee, Y. (1987). Comparison of tests used to distinguish smokers from nonsmokers.Am. J. Public Health 77: 1435–1438.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jarvis, M. J., Russell, M. A. H., Benowitz, N. L., and Feyerabend, C. (1988). Elimination of cotinine from body fluids: Implications for noninvasive measurement of tobacco smoke exposure.Am. J. Public Health 78: 696–698.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kyerematen, G. A., Morgan, M. L., Chattopadhyay, B., and deBethizy, J. D. (1990). Disposition of nicotine and eight metabolites in smokers and nonsmokers: Identification in smokers of two metabolites that are longer lived than cotinine.Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. 48: 641–651.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Langone, J. J., Gjika, H. B., and Van Vunakis, H. (1973). Nicotine and its metabolites. Radioimmunoassays for nicotine and cotinine.Biochemistry 12: 5025–5030.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Langone, J. J., Cook, G., Bjerke, R. J., and Lifschitz, M. H. (1988). Monoclonal antibody ELISA for cotinine in saliva and urine of active and passive smokers.J. Immunol. Methods 114: 73–78.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Luepker, R. V., Pechacek, T. F., Murray, D. M., Johnson, C. A., Hund, F., and Jacobs, D. R. (1981). Saliva thiocyanate: A chemical indicator of cigarette smoking in adolescents.Am. J. Public Health 71: 1320–1324.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lundquist, P., Martensson, J., Sorbo, B., and Ohman, S. (1979). Method for determining thiocyanate in serum and urine.Clin. Chem. 25: 678–681.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Machacek, D. A., and Jiang, N. S. (1986). Quantification of cotinine in plasma and saliva by liquid chromatography.Clin. Chem. 32: 979–982.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McNeill, A. D., Owen, L. A., Belcher, M., Sutherland, G., and Fleming, S. (1990). Abstinence from smoking and expired air-carbon monoxide levels: Lactose intolerance as a possible source of error.Am. J. Public Health 80: 1114–1115.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mulligan, S. C., Masterton, J. G., Devane, J. G., and Kelly, J. G. (1990). Clinical and pharmacokinetic properties of a transdermal nicotine patch.Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. 47: 331–337.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Noland, M. P., Kryscio, R. J., Riggs, R. S., Linville, L. H., Perritt, L. J., and Tucker, T. C. (1988). Saliva cotinine and thiocyanate: Chemical indicators of smokeless tobacco and cigarette use in adolescents.J. Behav. Med. 11: 423–433.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • O'Doherty, S., Cooke, M., and Roberts, D. J. (1990). Enhancing the LC analysis of nicotine and its metabolites in urine using Meldrurm's acid as a complexing agent.J. High Resolut. Chromatogr. 13: 74–77.

    Google Scholar 

  • Onishi, H. (1986). In Elving, P. J., Winefordner, J. D., and Kolthoff, I. M. (eds.),Photometric Determination of Traces of Metals, Chemical Analysis, Vol. 3, pt. IIA, 4th ed., John Wiley & Sons, New York, pp. 713–724.

    Google Scholar 

  • Orleans, C. S., and Shipley, R. H. (1982). Assessment in smoking cessation research. In Keefe, F. J., and Blumenthal, J. A. (eds.),Assessment Strategies in Behavioral Medicine, Grune & Stratton, New York, pp. 261–320.

    Google Scholar 

  • Parviainen, M. T., and Barlow, R. D. (1988). Assessment of exposure to environmental tobacco smoke using a high-performance liquid Chromatographic method for the simultaneous determination of nicotine and two of its metabolites in urine.J. Chromatogr. 431: 216–221.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Peach, H., Ellard, G. A., and Morris, R. W. (1985). A simple, inexpensive urine test of smoking.Thorax 40: 351–357.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pechacek, T. F., Fox, B. H., Murray, D. M., and Leupker, R. V. (1984). Review of techniques for measurement of smoking behavior. In Matarazzaro, J. D., Herd, J. A., Miller, N. E., and Weiss, S. M. (eds.),Behavioral Health: A Handbook of Health Enhancement and Disease Prevention, J. Wiley & Sons, New York, pp. 729–754.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pettigrew, A. R., and Fell, G. S. (1972). Simplified colorimetric determination of thiocyanate in biological fluids and its application to investigation of the toxic amblypopias.Clin. Chem. 18: 996–1000.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pichini, S., Altieri, I., Pacifici, R., Rosa, M., and Zuccaro, P. (1991). Elimination of caffeine interference in high-performance liquid Chromatographic determination of cotinine in human plasma.J. Chromatogr. 568: 267–269.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pierce, J. P., Dwyer, T., DiGiusto, E., Carpenter, T., Hannam, C., Amin, A., Yong, C., Sarfaty, G., Shaw, J., and Burke, S. N. (1987). Cotinine validation of self-reported smoking in commercially run community surveys.J. Chron. Dis. 40: 689–695.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pojer, R., Whitfield, J. B., Poulos, V., Eckhard, I. F., Richmond, R., and Hensley, W. J. (1984). Carboxyhemoglobin, cotinine, and thiocyanate assay compared for distinguishing smokers from non-smokers.Clin. Chem. 30: 1377–1380.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Proctor, C. J., Warren, N. G., Bevan, M. A. J., and Baker-Rogers, J. (1991). A comparison of methods of assessing exposure to environmental tobacco smoke in non-smoking British women.Environ. Int. 17: 287–297.

    Google Scholar 

  • Puhakainen, E. V. J., Barlow, R. D., and Salonen, J. T. (1987). An automated colorimetric assay for urine nicotine metabolites: A suitable alternative to cotinine assays for the assessment of smoking status.Clin. Chim. Acta 170: 255–262.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Russell, M. A. H., Jarvis, M. J., Devitt, G., and Feyerabend, C. (1981). Nicotine intake by snuff users.Br. Med. J. 283: 814–817.

    Google Scholar 

  • Russell, M. A. H. (1990). Nicotine intake and its control over smoking. In Wonnacott, S., Russell, M. A. H., and Stolerman, I. P. (eds.),Nicotine Psychopharmacology: Molecular Cellular, and Behavioural Aspects, Oxford University Press, New York, pp. 374–418.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schepers, G., and Walk, R.-A. (1988). Cotinine determination by immunoassays may be influenced by other nicotine metabolites.Arch. Toxicol. 62: 395–397.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schievelbein, H., Heinemann, G., Loschenkohl, K., Troll, C., and Schlegel, J. (1978). Metabolie aspects of smoking behavior. In Thorton, R. E. (ed.),Smoking Behavior: Physiological and Psychological Influences, Livingstone, Edinburgh, Scotland, pp. 371–379.

    Google Scholar 

  • Smith, C. L., O'Doherty, S., Cooke, M., and Roberts, D. J. (1989). Determination of nicotine metabolites by HPLC after complexation with diethylthiobarbituric acid.Anal. Proc. (London) 26: 348–351.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sonnenworth, A. C., and Jarrett, L. (eds.) (1980).Gradwohl's Clinical Laboratory Methods and Diagnosis, 8th ed., Mosby, St. Louis, pp. 814–815.

    Google Scholar 

  • Turner, J. A. McM., Ball, K. P., and Sillett, R. W. (1981). Deception among cigarette smokers. In Greenhalgh, R. M. (ed.),Smoking and Arterial Disease, Pitman Press, Bath, UK, pp. 60–63.

    Google Scholar 

  • U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (1990). Assessing smoking cessation and its health consequences. InThe Health Benefits of Smoking Cessation. A Report of the Surgeon General, DHHS Publication No. (CDC) 90-8416, pp. 17–69.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vesey, C. J. (1981). Thiocyanate and cigarette consumption. In Greenhalgh, R. M. (ed.),Smoking and Arterial Disease, Pitman Press, Bath, UK, pp. 106–121.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wagenknecht, L. E., Cutter, G. R., Haley, N. J., Sidney, S., Manolio, T. A., Hughes, G. H., and Jacobs, D. R. (1990). Racial differences in serum cotinine levels among smokers in the coronary artery risk development in (young) adults study.Am. J. Public Health 80: 1053–1056.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wagenknecht, L. E., Burke, G. L., Perkins, L. L., Haley, N. J., and Friedman, G. D. (1992). Misclassification of smoking status in the CARDIA study: A comparison of self-report with serum cotinine levels.Am. J. Public Health 82: 33–36.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Chemistry, Northern Arizona University, 86011-5698, Flagstaff, Arizona

    Don D. Gilbert

Authors
  1. Don D. Gilbert
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Gilbert, D.D. Chemical analyses as validators in smoking cessation programs. J Behav Med 16, 295–308 (1993). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00844761

Download citation

  • Accepted:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00844761

Key words

Search

Navigation