Abstract
Three large plastic enclosures (5 m diam, volume 40 m3) were used to study the effects of copper, manganese and zinc, on the phytoplankton community in Island billabong, a floodplain billabong (waterhole) situated in the Magela Creek in tropical northern Australia. Copper was added to one enclosure, and manganese and zinc to another, to give initial concentrations around ten times the normal wet season values. The enclosures and the billabong were monitored over a ten week period towards the end of the dry season, with the enclosures allowed to stabilise for four weeks before the metals were added.
The control enclosure adequately simulated the temperature and pH changes in the billabong. The trends in conductivity, dissolved oxygen and major ion concentrations were similar in the enclosure and the billabong, with the minor differences observed attributed to either epiphytic growth on the enclosure walls (influenced dissolved oxygen, pH and bicarbonate concentration) or ingress of sulphate-rich groundwater into the billabong (influenced sulphate concentration and conductivity). Major differences in both the composition of species and the size of the phytoplankton populations were observed between the three enclosures and between the control enclosure and the billabong. This variability reflects the great natural variability in the phytoplankton communities in tropical lentic systems, and means that enclosures are unlikely to adequately simulate the biological communities in the billabongs.
The control enclosure appeared to simulate quite well the longer term changes in total concentration and speciation of the three metals (copper, manganese & zinc) in the billabong. The mean concentrations of copper and zinc were similar in the two systems, although the mean concentration of manganese in the billabong was almost double that in the enclosure, possibly due to ingress of manganese-enriched groundwater. Particulate forms dominated the speciation of copper and manganese. There was considerable short term variation in both total metal concentration and speciation in both the enclosure and the billabong. This variability appears to be a feature of these small tropical waterbodies.
The added heavy metals were found to have minimal detrimental effect on the phytoplankton community in each metal-loaded enclosure. The high natural variability in the phytoplankton community in these tropical systems will make it difficult to separate natural changes from those caused by low level contamination from mining operations should this occur.
All three metals were rapidly removed from the water column, so that by the end of the six week period, only ca. 5% of each added metal remained in the water column. Association with the particulate matter (phytoplankton, abiotic particulate matter and MnOx in enclosure 2) followed by sedimentation was the major removal pathway. Epiphytes growing on the enclosure walls appeared to have a minor influence (<10% of the total amount of metal added) on the removal of the added metals. For copper, uptake by phytoplankton followed by sedimentation was the major (65%) removal process. Manganese and zinc, added together, were found to influence each other. The major manganese removal process (60%) was rapid (ca. 3 days) involving bacterial oxidation and sedimentation of the MnOx formed. This material appeared to have little influence on the behaviour of zinc, possibly because other particulate matter competed more effectively for the zinc. A further 30% of the added manganese was removed via initial adsorption to other particulate matter, possibly phytoplankton. Approximately one third of this adsorbed manganese (10% of the total added) appeared to undergo delayed oxidation some 8 days after the initial additions, and the heavier particles settled out more rapidly. This path was responsible for removing the major amount (ca. 60%) of the added zinc. We hypothesis that the sorbed zinc inhibited the bacterial oxidation of the manganese. A further 25% of the zinc was removed in association with a ‘burst’ of phytoplankton activity. The occurrence of bursts in the phytoplankton activity, when populations can increase very substantially and then decrease again, all within the space of a day, appears to be an important mechanism for removing copper and zinc from the water column in these tropical water bodies
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Allen, H. E., R. H. Hall & T. D. Brisbin, 1980. Metal speciation: effects on aquatic toxicity. Envir. Sci. Technol. 14: 401–403.
Anderson, D. M. & F. M. M. Morel, 1978. Copper sensitivity of Gonyaulax tamarensis. Limnol. Oceanog. 23: 283–295.
APHA, 1980. Standard Method for Analysis of Waters and Wastewaters, 15th Edition. American Public Health Association, New York.
Baccini, P., H. Hohl & Th. Bundi, 1978. Phenomenology and modelling of heavy metal distribution in lakes. Verh. int. Ver. Limnol. 20: 1871–1975.
Bates, S. S., M. Le Tourneau, A. Tessier & P. G. C. Campbell, 1983. Variability in zinc adsorption and transport during growth of Clamydomonas variabilis (Chlorophyceae) in batch culture with daily addition of zinc. Can. J. Fish. aquat. Sci. 40: 895–904.
Bates, S. S., M. Letourneau, A. Tessier & P. G. C. Campbell, 1983. Variability in zinc adsorption and transport during growth of Clamydomonas variabilis (Chlorophyceae) in batch culture with daily addition of zinc. Can. J. Fish. aquat. Sci. 40: 895–904.
Baxter, R. M. & J. H. Carey, 1983. Evidence for photochemical generation of superoxide ion in humic waters. Nature 306: 575–576.
Bishop, K. A., 1983. Feeding habits of freshwater fishes of the Alligator Rivers region. Proc. Workshop. Environmental Protection in the Alligator Rivers Region, Office of the Supervising Scientist for the Alligator Rivers Region, Jabiru.
Bloesch, J., 1974. Sedimentation und phosphorhaushalt im Vierwaldstattersee (Horwer Bucht) und im Rotsee. Schweitz. Z. Hydrol. 36: 71–186.
Bloesch, J., P. Bossard, H. Buhrer, H. R. Burgi & U. Uehlinger, 1988. Can results from limnocorral experiments be transferred to in situ conditions? Hydrobiol. 159: 297–308.
Bloesch, J. & M. Sturm, 1984. Sedimentation rates used to calculate sinking velocities as an output parameter of a model for the restoration of eutrophic Lake Zug, Switzerland. Proc. 3rd International Symposium on Interactions between Sediments and Water, CEP Consultants, Edinburgh, 87–90.
Brunskill, G. J., B. W. Graham & J. W. M. Rudd, 1980. Experimental studies on the effect of arsenic on microbial degredation of organic matter and algal growth.Can. J. Fish. aquat Sci. 37: 415–423.
Buffle, J., 1980. A critical comparison of studies of complex formation between copper (II) and fulvic substances of natural waters. Anal. chim. Acta 118: 29–44.
Button, K. S. & H. P. Hostetter, 1977. Copper sorption and release by Cyclotella meneghinina (Bacillariophyceae) and Clamydomonas reinhardtii (Chlorophyceae). J. Phycol. 13: 198–202.
Chapnik, S. D., W. S. Moore & K. H. Nealson, 1982. Microbially mediated manganese oxidation in a freshwater lake. Limnol. Oceanog. 27: 1004–1014.
Davies, S. H. R., 1985. Mn(II) oxidation in the presence of metal oxides. Ph.D. Thesis, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California.
Diem, D. & W. Stumm, 1984. Is dissolved Mn2+ being oxidised by O2 in absence of Mn-bacteria or surface catalysts? Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 48: 1571–1573.
Emerson, S., S. Kalhorn, L. Jacobs, B. M. Tebo, K. H. Nealson & R. A. Rosson, 1982. Environmental oxidation rate of manganese (II): bacterial catalysis. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 46: 1073–1079.
Florence, T. M., B. G. Lumsden & J. J. Fardy, 1983. Evaluation of some physico-chemical techniques for the determination of the fraction of dissolved copper toxic to the marine diatom Nitzschia closterium. Anal. Chim. Acta 151: 281–295.
Fox, R. W., G. G. Kelleher & C. B. Kerr, 1977. Ranger Uranium Environmental Inquiry, 2nd Report. Aust. Govt. Publishing Service, Canberra.
Gachter, R. & A. Mares, 1979. MELIMEX, an experimental heavy metal pollution study: Effects of increased heavy metal loads on phytoplankton communities. Schweiz. Z. Hydrol. 41: 228–246.
Gachter, R., 1979. MELIMEX, an experimental heavy metal pollution study: Goals, experimental design and major findings. Schweiz. Z. Hydrol. 41: 177–314.
Grice, G. D. & M. R. Reeve, 1982. Marine Mesocosms. Springer Verlag Publ., New York.
Grill, E. V., 1982. Kinetic and thermodynamic factors controlling manganese concentrations in oceanic waters. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 46: 2435–2446.
Guy, R. D. & A. R. Kean, 1980. Algae as a chemical speciation monitor, I. A comparison of algal growth and computer calculated speciation. Wat. Res. 14: 891–899.
Hargraves, B. T. & N. M. Burns, 1979. Assessment of sediment trap collection efficiency. Limnol. Oceanog. 24: 1124–1135.
Hart, B. T. & S. H. R. Davies, 1977. A batch method for the determination of ion exchangeable trace metals in natural waters. Aust. J. mar. Freshwat. Res. 28: 397–402.
Hart, B. T. & R. G. McGregor, 1980. Limnological survey of eight billabongs in the Magela Creek system, Northern Territory. Aust. J. mar. Freshwat. Res. 31: 611–626.
Hart, B. T., 1982. Australian water quality criteria for heavy metals, AWRC Tech. Paper No. 77, Aust. Govt. Publishing Service, Canberra.
Hart, B. T., 1982. Australian water quality criteria for heavy metals. Australian Water Resources Council, Tech. Paper No. 77, Canberra.
Hart, B. T. & S. H. R. Davies, 1978. A batch method for the determination of ion-exchangeable trace metals in natural waters. Aust. J. mar. Freshwat. Res. 28: 397–402.
Hart, B. T., S. H. R. Davies & P. A. Thomas, 1982. Transport of iron, manganese, cadmium, copper and zinc by Magela Creek, Northern Territory, Australia. Wat. Res. 16: 605–612.
Hart, B. T., M. J. Jones & P. Breen, 1983. Copper uptake by the aquatic macrophyte Najas tenuifolia. Envir. Tech. Letts. 4: 17–222.
Hart, B. T. & M. J. Jones, 1984a. Measurement of the copper complexing capacity in Magela Creek waters. In: C. J. M. Kramer & J. C. Duinker (Eds.), Complexation of Trace Metals in Natural Waters. Dr. W. Junk Publ., The Hague.
Hart, B. T. & M. J. Jones, 1984b. Oxidation of manganese (II) in Island billabong water. Envir. Tech. Letts. 6: 87–92.
Hart, B. T., M. J. Jones, P. Bek & J. Kessell, 1985a. Fate of heavy metals in the Magela Creek system, northern Australia, II. Experiments with plastic enclosures placed in Island billabong during the 1980 dry season: limnology and phytoplankton. Tech. Mem. 14, Supervising Scientist for the Alligator Rivers Region, Aust. Govt. Publishing Service, Canberra, 27 pp.
Hart, B. T., M. J. Jones & P. Bek, 1985b. Fate of heavy metals in the Magela Creek system, northern Australia, I. Experiments with plastic enclosures placed in Island billabong during the 1980 dry season: heavy metals. Tech. Mem. 13, Supervising Scientist for the Alligator Rivers Region, Aust. Govt. Publishing Service, Canberra.
Hart, B. T., E. M. Ottaway & B. N. Noller, 1987. The Magela Creek system, northern Australia, I. 1982/83 wet season water quality. Aust. J. mar. Freshwat. Res. 38: 261–288.
Hem, J. D., 1981. Rates of manganese oxidation in aqueous systems. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 45: 1369–1374.
Hirose, K., Y. Dokiya & Y. Sugimura, 1982. Determination of conditional stability constants of organic copper and zinc complexes dissolved in seawater using ligand exchange method with EDTA. Mar. Chem. 11: 343–354.
Hunt, C. D., 1983. Incorporation and deposition of Mn and other trace metals by flocculant organic matter in a controlled marine ecosystem. Limnol. Oceanog. 28: 302–308.
Imber, B. E. & M. G. Robinson, 1983. Complexation of zinc by exudates of Thalassiosira fluviatilis grown in culture. Mar. Chem. 14: 31–41.
Imber, B. E., M. G. Robinson, A. M. Ortega & J. D. Burton, 1985. Complexation of zinc by exudates form Skeletonema costatum grown in culture. Mar. Chem. 16: 131–139.
Imberger, J., 1985a. The diurnal mixed layer. Limnol. Oceanog. 30: 737–770.
Imberger, J., 1985b. Thermal characteristics of standing waters: an illustration of dynamic processes. Hydrobiol. 125: 7–29.
Imboden, D., B. Eid, T. Joller, M. Schurter & J. Wetzel, 1979. MELIMEX, and experimental heavy metal pollution study: Vertical mixing in a large limnocorral. Schweiz. Z. Hydrol. 41: 177–189.
Jones, M. J., 1987. Copper complexing capacity of Magela Creek waters. M. App. Sci. Thesis, Chisholm Institute of Technology, Melbourne.
Kerrison, P. H., A. R. Sprocati, O. Ravera & L. Amantini, 1980. Effects of cadmium on an aquatic community using artificial enclosures. Envir. Tech. Lett. 1: 169–176.
Kessell, J. A. & P. A. Tyler, 1984. Phytoplankton populations of the Magela creek system, Alligator Rivers region, Northern Territory, Report to Supervising Scientist for the Alligator Rivers Region, Sydney.
Klotz, R. L., 1981. Algal response to copper under riverine conditions. Envir. Poll. 24: 1–19.
Lack, T. J. & J. W. G. Lund, 1974. Observations and experiments on the phytoplankton on Blelham Tarn, English Lakes District, I. The experimental tubes. Freshwat. Biol. 4: 399–415.
Ling, H. U. & P. A. Tyler, 1985. Freshwater algae, exclusive of diatoms, of the Alligator Rivers region, Northern Territory, Research Rep. 3(II), Supervising Scientist for the Alligator Rivers Region, Aust. Govt. Publishing Service, Canberra.
McQueen, D. J. & D. R. S. Lean, 1983. Hypolimnetic aeration and dissolved gas concentrations: enclosure experiments. Wat. Res. 17: 1781–1790.
Morgan, J. J. & W. Stumm, 1964. Colloid-chemical properties of manganese dioxide. J. Colloid Sci. 19: 347–359.
Morgan, J. J., 1967. Chemical equilibria and kinetic properties of manganese in natural waters, in S. D. Faust & J. V. Hunter (Eds.), Principles and Applications of Water Chemistry. Wiley & Sons, New York, 561–624.
Morley, A. W., 1981. A review of Jabiluka environmental studies, Pancontinential Mining Ltd, Sydney.
Morris, R. J., M. J. McCartney & G. A. Robinson, 1983. Studies of a spring phytoplankton bloom in an enclosed experimental ecosystem, I. Biochemical changes in relation to the nutrient chemistry of water. J. exp. mar. Biol. Ecol. 70: 249–262.
Noller, B. N., N. A. Currey, P. J. Cusbert, M. Tuor & P. F. Bradley, 1985. Temporal variation in atmospheric nutrient flux to the Magela and Norlangie Creek systems, Northern Territory, Proc. Ecol. Soc. Aust. 13: 21–31.
Posselt, H. S., F. J. Anderson & W. J. Weber, 1963. Cation sorption on colloidal hydrous manganese dioxide. Envir. Sci. Technol, 2: 1087–1093.
Romeo, M. & M. Gnassia-Barelli, 1985. Metal uptake by different species of phytoplankton in culture. Hydrobiol. 123: 205–209.
Sanders, F. S., 1984. Use of large enclosures for perturbation experiments in lentic ecosystems: A review. Environ. Monitor. Assessment 5: 55–99.
Santschi, P. H., 1985. The MERL mesocosm approach for studying sediment-water interactions and ecotoxicology. Envir. Tech. Lett. 6: 335–350.
Santschi, P. H., U. P. Nyffeler, R. F. Anderson, S. L. Schiff, P. O'Hara & R. H. Hesslein, 1986. Response of radioactive trace metals to acid base titrations in controlled experimental ecosystems: Evaluation of transport parameters for application to whole lake radiotracer experiments. Can. J. Fish. aquat. Sci. 43: 60–77.
Schindler, D. W., R. H. Hesslein, R. Wagemann & W. S. Broecker, 1980. Effects of acidification on mobilisation of heavy metals and radionuclides from the sediment of a freshwater lake. Can. J. Fish. aquat. Sci. 37: 373–377.
Smayda, T. J., 1971. Normal and accelerated sinking of phytoplankton in the sea. Mar. Geol. 11: 105–122.
Stauber, J. L. & T. M. Florence, 1985. Interactions of copper and manganese: A mechanism by which manganese alleviates copper toxicity in the marine diatom Nitzschia closterium (Ehrenberg) W. Smith. Aquat. Toxicol. 6: 297–305.
Steel, J. A., 1969. A membrane filter method for counting algae. Wat. Treat. Examin. 18: 343–346.
Stumm, W. & J. J. Morgan, 1982. Aquatic Chemistry, Second Edition. John. Wiley & Sons, Brisbane.
Sunda, W. G. & R. R. L. Guillard, 1976. The relationship between cupric ion activity and the toxicity of copper to phytoplankton. J. mar. Res. 34: 511–529.
Sunda, W. G. & S. A. Huntsman, 1983. Effect of competitive interactions between manganese and copper on cellular manganese growth in estuarine and oceanic species of the diatom Thalassiosira. Limnol. Oceanog. 28: 924–934.
Sunda, W. G., S. A. Huntsman & G. R. Harvey, 1983. Photoreduction of manganese oxides in seawater and its geochemical and biological implications. Science 301: 234–236.
Sunda, W. G. & A. K. Hanson, 1987. Measurement of free cupric ion concentration in seawater by a ligand competition technique copper sorption onto C18 SEP-PAK cartridges. Limnol. Oceanog. 32: 537–551.
Sung, W. & J. J. Morgan, 1981. Oxidative removal of Mn(II) from solution catalysed by the.-FeOOH (lepidocrocite) surface. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 45: 2377–2383.
Thomas, W. H. & D. R. L. Seibert, 1977. Effects of copper on the dominance and diversity of algae: Controlled ecosystem pollution experiment. Bull. mar. Sci. 27: 23–33.
Thomas, W. H., O. Holm-Hanson, D. R. L. Seibert, F. Azam, R. Hodson & M. Takakashi, 1977. Effects of copper on phytoplankton standing crop and productivity: CEPEX. Bull. mar. Sci. 27: 34–43.
Thomas, P. A. & B. T. Hart, 1984. Textural characteristics and heavy metal concentrations in billabong sediments form the Magela Creek system, northern Australia. Tech. Mem. 9, Supervising Scientist for the Alligator Rivers Region, Aust. Govt. Publishing Service, Canberra.
Tipping, E., 1984. Temperature dependence of Mn(II) oxidation in lakewater: a test of biological involvement. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 48: 1353–1356.
Tipping, E., D. W. Thompson & W. Davison, 1984. Oxidation products of Mn(II) in lakewaters. Chem. Geol. 44: 359–383.
Titman, D. & P. Kilham, 1976. Sinking in freshwater plankton: Some ecological implications of cell nutrient status and physical mixing processes. Limnol. Oceanog. 21: 409–417.
Uehlinger, U., P. Bossard, J. Bloesch, H. R. Burgi & H. Buhrer, 1985. Ecological experiments in limnocorrals: Methodological problems and quantification of the epilimnetic phosphorus and carbon cycles. Verh. int. Ver. Limnol. 22: 163–171.
Van den Berg, C. M. G., P. T. S. Wong & Y. K. Chau, 1979. Measurement of complexing materials excreted form algae and their ability to ameliorate copper toxicity. J. Fish Res. Bd Can. 36: 901–905.
Van den Berg, C. M. G. & S. Dharmvabij, 1984. Determination of complexing capacities of zinc using equilibration of MnO2 with 65Zn. Limnol. Oceanog. 29: 1025–1036.
Van den Berg, C. M. G., 1985. Determination of zinc complexing capacity in seawater by cathodic stripping voltammetry of zinc-APDC complex ions. Mar. Chem. 16: 121–130.
Vincent, W. F., P. J. Neale & P. J. Richerson, 1984. Photoinhibition: algal responses to bright light during diel stratification and mixing in a tropical alpine lake. J. Phycol. 20: 201–211.
Walker, T. D. & P. A. Tyler, 1985. Tropical Australia, a dynamic limnological environment. Verh. int. Ver. Limnol. 22: 1727–1734.
Walker, T. D. & P. A. Tyler, 1986. Chemical characteristics and nutrient status of billabongs of the Alligator Rivers region, Northern Territory, Report to Supervising Scientist for the Alligator Rivers Region, Sydney.
Wetzel, R. G., 1975. Limnology. W.B. Saunders Co., London.
White, L. & F. Gigliotti (Eds.), 1982. Heavy metal monitoring — Alligator Rivers Region uranium province 1979. Land Conservation Unit Report No. LC82/1, N.T. Conservation Commission, Darwin.
Wilson, D. E., 1980. Surface and complexation effects on the rate of Mn(II) oxidation in natural waters. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 44: 1311–1317.
Wong, P. T. S., Y. K. Chau & P. L. Luxon, 1978. Toxicity of a mixture of metals on freshwater algae. J. Fish. Res. Bd Can. 35: 479–481.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Hart, B.T., Currey, N.A. & Jones, M.J. Biogeochemistry and effects of copper, manganese and zinc added to enclosures in Island Billabong, Magela Creek, northern Australia. Hydrobiologia 230, 93–134 (1992). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00006129
Received:
Revised:
Accepted:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00006129