Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Predation on earthworms by terrestrial vertebrates

  • Chapter
Earthworm Ecology

Abstract

The earthworm Lumbricus terrestris is widespread and abundant. Its biomass may reach 1000 kg ha −1, and > 20 worms m −2 may surface simultaneously at night. Earthworms are thus potentially available to subterranean predators, to those that dig them up and those which catch them on the surface. Earthworm tissue has a high protein content and is rich in essential amino acids (Sabine, Chapter 24). It contains a considerable amount of fat variously estimated it 1.5%(Lawrence and Millar, 1945),4.6%(French et al., 1957) and 17.3 /~ (Durchon and Lafon, 1951) and this is reflected in a high energy content of about 22.24 kJg−1 dry wt, (Bolton and Phillipson, 1976). This abundant food resource is utilized by diverse predators and for some of them is seasonally the principal food. Earthworms feature in the diets of hundreds of species of terrestrial vertebrates but the adaptations of these predators to securing earthworms as prey have been studied in very few of them. This chapter reviews (a) a selection of studies of the importance of earthworms in the diets of sympatric species, (b) the few studies that have investigated predation on Lumbricus, and (c) the relationships between the ecology of the earthworm and the behaviour and social organization of these predators.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 84.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 109.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Preview

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

References

  • ArIton, A. V. (1936) An ecological study of the mole. J. Mammal., 17, 349–371.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ashton, D. H. (1975) Studies of leaflitter in Eucalyptus regnans forests. Austr. J. Bot., 23, 413–433.

    Google Scholar 

  • Banks, C. J. (1957) The behaviour of individual coccinellid larvae on plants. Br.J. Anim. Behav., 5, 12–24.

    Google Scholar 

  • Barker, R. J. (1958) Notes on some ecological effects of DDT sprayed on elms.

    Google Scholar 

  • J. Wildl. Mgmt., 22, 269–274.

    Google Scholar 

  • Barnard, C. J. and Stephens, H. (1981) Prey size selection by lapwings in lapwing/gull associations. Behaviour, 77, 1–22.

    Google Scholar 

  • Barrett-Hamilton, G. E. H. (1910) A History of British Mammals. Gurney and Jackson, London. 748 pp.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bas Lopez, S., Rivera, J. S., Lorenzzo, A. de C. and Sandez Canals, B. L. (1979) Data on the feeding of Salamandra salamandra L., in Galicia, N. W. Spain. Bol. Estac. Cent. Ecol., 8, 73–78.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bengtson, S. A., Nilsson, A., Nordstrom, S. and Rundgren, S. (1976) Effect of bird predation on lumbricid populations. Oikos, 27, 9–12.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bengtson, S. A., Rundgren, S., Nilsson, A. and Nordstrom, S. (1978) Selective predation on lumbricids by golden plover, Pluvialis apricaria. Oikos, 31, 164–168.

    Google Scholar 

  • Binder, N. (1971) Contributions to morphology, invasion dynamics and development of helminths of the blackbird (Turdus merula L.) Zool. Beitr., 17, 83–150.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bolton, P. J. and Phillipson, J. (1976) Burrowing, feeding, egestion and energy budgets of Allolobophora rosea (Savigny) (Lumbricidae). Oecologia ( Berl.), 23, 225–245.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bradley, R. M. (1929) Habits and distribution of the rock squirrel in southern New Mexico. J. Mammal., 10, 168–169.

    Google Scholar 

  • Catiing, P. M. and Freedman, B. (1980) Food and feeding behaviour ofsympatric snakes at Amherstburg, Ontario. Can. Fld. Nat., 94, 28–33.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cheeseman, C. L., Jones, G. W., Gallagher, J. and Mallinson, P. J. (1981) The population structure, density and prevalence of tuberculosis (Mycobacterium bovis) in badgers (Meles meles) from four areas in south-west England. J. Appl. Bcol., 18, 795–804.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chichikin, Y. N. (1968) The ecology and economic importance of the badger in the South of Kirgiziya. Tr. Sary-chelekskogo Gos. Zapoved., 3, 109–120.

    Google Scholar 

  • Churchfield, J. S. (1979) A note on the diet of the European water shrew, Neomys fodiens bicolor. J. Zool. (London), 188, 294–296.

    Google Scholar 

  • Clark, D. R. (1971) Ecological study of the worm snake, Carphophis vermis. (Kennicott). Univ. Kans. Pubis. Mus. Nat. Hist., 19, 85–194.

    Google Scholar 

  • Coleman, J. D. (1971) The distribution, numbers, and food of the rook, Corvus frugilegusfrugilegus L. in Canterbury, New Zealand. N.Z.J. Sci., 14,494–506.

    Google Scholar 

  • Collinge, W. E. (1913) The Food of some British Wild Birds: a Study in Economic Ornithology. Dulau, London. 109 pp.

    Google Scholar 

  • Croze, J. (1970) Searching image in carrion crows. Z. Tierpsychol., 1–85.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dawson, E. W. (1958) Food of young black-billed gulls (Larus bulleri) in a breeding colony, North Canterbury. Notornis, 8, 1–7.

    Google Scholar 

  • Delmee, E., Dachy, P. and Simon, P. (1979) Comparative study of a feeding regime of a forest population of tawny owls, Strix aluco. Gerfaut, 69, 45–78.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dexter, R. W. (1951) Earthworms in the winter diet of the opossum and racoon.J. Mammal., 32, 464.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dimond, J. B., Belyea, G. Y., Kadunce, R. E., Getchell, A. S. and Blease, J. A. (1970) DDT residues in robins and earthworms associated with contaminated forest soils. Can. Em., 102, 1122–1130.

    Google Scholar 

  • Durchon, M. and Lafon, M. (1951) Quelques donnees biochimiques sur les anne!ides. Ann. Sci. Nat., ZOOI.-I I Ser., 13,427–452.

    Google Scholar 

  • Eadie, W. R. (1939) A contribution to the biology of Parascalops breweri. J. Mammal., 20, 150–173

    Google Scholar 

  • Evans, A. C. (1948) The identity of earthworms stored by moles. Proc. Zool. Soc., 118, 356–359.

    Google Scholar 

  • French, C. E., Liscinsky, S. A. and Millar, D. R. (1957) Nutrient composition of earthworms. J. Wildl. Mgmt., 21, 16–19.

    Google Scholar 

  • Funmilayo, O. (1979) Food consumption, preferences and storage in the mole. Acta. Theriol., 24, 379–389.

    Google Scholar 

  • Funmilayo, O. (1981) Earthworms in the diet of small mammals and birds in Nigeria. Unpublished paper presented at the Darwin Centenary Symposium on Earthworm Ecology, Grange-over-Sands, Cumbria, UK.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gregory, P. T. (1978) Feeding habits and diet overlap of three species of garter snakes (Thamnophis) on Vancouver Island. Can. J. Zool., 56, 1967–1974.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hamilton, W. J. (1930) The food of the Soricidae. J. Mammal., 11,26–39.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hamilton, W. J. (1931) Habits of the star-nosed mole, Condylura cristata. J. Mammal., 12, 345–355.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hamilton, W. J. (1941) The food of small forest mammals in Eastern United States. J. Mammal., 22, 250–263.

    Google Scholar 

  • Harlin, J. (1977) Comparison of diets of the blackbird and the starling. Zool. Listy, 26,45–56.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hepp!eston, P. B. (1971) The feeding ecology of oystercatchers, (Haematopus ostralegus L.) in winter in Northern Scotland. J. Anim. Ecol., 40, 651–672.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hirons, G. (1976) A population study of the tawny owl Strix aluco and its main prey species in woodland. PhD thesis, Oxford University.

    Google Scholar 

  • Holisova, V. (1967) The food of Apodemus agrarius (Pall). Zool. Listy, 16, 1–14.

    Google Scholar 

  • Holisova, V. and Obrtel, R. (1979) The food eaten by Clethrionomys glareolus in a spruce monoculture. Fol. Zool., 28, 219–230.

    Google Scholar 

  • Holisova, V., Pekikan, J. and Zejda, J. (1962) Ecology and population dynamics in Apodemus microps (Krat. and Ros) (Mamm. Muridae). Pro Brn. Zakl. Csi. Akad. Vld., 34, 493–540.

    Google Scholar 

  • Horner, B. E., Taylor, J. M. and Padykula, H. A. (1965) Food habits and gastric morphology of the grasshopper mouse. J. Mammal., 45, 513–535.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ivanter, E. H. (1969) A contribution to the study of the mole (Talpa europea europea L.) in Karelia. Uch. Zap. Petrozavodsk. Univ., 16, 186–202.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jefferies, D. J. and Davis, B. N. K. (1968) Dynamics of dieldrin in soil, earthworms, and song thrushes. J. Wildl. Mgmt., 32, 441–456.

    Google Scholar 

  • Koral, N. F. (1976) Data on the ecology of the wryneck in the gardens of the Middle Dneiper. Vestn. Zool., 4, 87–90. [In Russian].

    Google Scholar 

  • Krebs, J. R. (1978) Optimal foraging: decision rules for predators. In Behavioural Ecology: an Evolutionary Approach (eds. J. R. Krebs and N. B. Davies), Blackwell, Oxford, pp. 23–63.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kruuk, H. (1978a) Foraging and spatial organisation of the European badger, Meles meles L. Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol., 4, 75–89.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kruuk, H. (1978b) Spatial organisation and territorial behaviour of the European badger, Meles meles L. J. Zool. (London), 184, 1–19.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kruuk, H. and Parish, T. (1981) Feeding specialisations ofthe European badger, Meles meles in Scotland. J. Anim. Ecol., 50, 773–788.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kruuk, H. and Parish, T. (1982) Factors affecting population density, group size and territory size of the European badger, Meles meles. J. Zool. (London), 196, 31–39.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kruuk, H., Parish, T., Brown, C. A. J. and Carrera, J. (1979) The use of pasture by the European badger (Meles meles). J. Appl. Ecol., 16, 453–459.

    Google Scholar 

  • Landry, S. O. (1970) The Rodentia as omnivores. Q. Rev. Bioi., 45, 351

    Google Scholar 

  • Lawrence, R. D. and Millar, H. R. (1945) Protein content of earthworms. Nature (London), 155, 517.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lescure, J. (1966) The food of the common toad, Bufo bufo (Linnaeus 1758). Vie Milieu, 15, 757–764

    Google Scholar 

  • Lesinch, K. P. and Melbarde, R. E. (1974) Development aspects of Syngamus trachea, as part of the earthworm development cycle. Latv. P.S.R. Zinat. Akad. Vestis, II, 34–37. [In Russian]

    Google Scholar 

  • Liat, L. B. and Heyneman, D. (1968) A collection of small mammals from Tuaran and the southwest face of Mt. Kinabalu, Sabah. Sarawak Mus. J., 16, 257

    Google Scholar 

  • Ljungstrom, P. O. and Reinecke, A. J. (1969) IV. Studies on influences of earthworms upon the soil and the parasitological questions. Ecology and natural history of the microchaetid earthworms of South Africa. Pedobiologia, 9, 152–157.

    Google Scholar 

  • Logier, E. B. S. (1958) The Snakes of Ontario. University of Toronto Press. Macdonald, D. W. (1976a) Nocturnal observations of tawny owls, Strix aluco, preying upon earthworms. Ibis, 118, 579–580.

    Google Scholar 

  • Macdonald, D. W. (1976b) Food caching by the red fox and other carnivores. Z. Tierpsychol., 42, 170–185.

    Google Scholar 

  • Macdonald, D. W. (1977) The behavioural ecology of the redfox, Vulpes vulpes: a study of social organisation and resource exploitation. D.Phil. Thesis. Oxford University.

    Google Scholar 

  • Macdonald, D. W. (1978) Radio tracking: some applications and limitations. In Animal Marking: Recognition Marking of Animals in Research (ed. B. Stonehouse), Macmillan, London, pp. 192–204.

    Google Scholar 

  • Macdonald, D. W. (1980) The red fox, Vulpes vulpes, as a predator upon earthworms, Lumbricus terrestris. Z. Tierpsychol., 52,.171–200.

    Google Scholar 

  • Macdonald, D. W. (1981) Resource dispersion and the social organisation of the red fox, Vulpes vulpes. In Worldwide Furbearer Conference Proceedings (eds. J. A. Chapman and D. Parsley), Maryland, USA, pp. 918–949.

    Google Scholar 

  • Macdonald, D. W. (1983) The ecology of carnivore social behaviour. Nature ( London), 301, 379–384.

    Google Scholar 

  • Macdonald, D. W. and Amlaner, C. J. (1980) A practical guide to radio tracking. In A Handbook on Biotelemetry and Radio Tracking (eds. C. J. Amlaner and D. W. Macdonald), Pergamon Press, Oxford, pp. 143–159.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mellanby, K. (1966) Mole activity in woodlands, fens and other habitats. J. Zool. (London), 149, 35–41.

    Google Scholar 

  • Moeed, A. (1976) Birds and their food resources at Christchurch International Airport, New Zealand. N.Z. J. Zool., 3, 373–390.

    Google Scholar 

  • Morris, P. (1963) Biology of the Hedgehog, Ph.D. thesis. London University. Murdie, G. and Hassel, M. P. (1972) In The Mathematical Theory of the Dynamics of Biological Populations (eds. M. S. Bartlett and R. W. Hiorns), Academic Press, London and New York, pp. 87–107.

    Google Scholar 

  • Neal, E. G. (1977) Badgers. Blandford Press, Poole. Obrtel, R. (1973) Animal food of Apodemus fiavicollis in a lowland forest. Zool. Listy, 22, 15–30.

    Google Scholar 

  • Obrtel, R. and Holisova, V. (1979) The food eaten by Apodemus sylvaticus in a spruce monoculture. Fol. Zool., 28, 299–310.

    Google Scholar 

  • Obrtel, R. and Holisova, V. (1980) The food eaten by Apodemus fiavicollis in a spruce monoculture. Fol. Zool., 29, 2132.

    Google Scholar 

  • Okhotina, M. (1969) Some data on the ecology of Sorex (Ognevia) mirabilis (Ognev, 1937). Acta Theriol., 14, 273–284.

    Google Scholar 

  • Osgood, F. C. (1936) Earthworms as a supplementary food of weasels. J. Mammal., 17, 64

    Google Scholar 

  • Raw, F. (1966) The soil fauna as a food source for moles. J. Zool. (London), 149, 50–54

    Google Scholar 

  • Reeve, N. (1982) Radio tracking studies of the hedgehog. In Radio-Tracking of Vertebrates (eds. C. L. Cheeseman and R. Mitson), Proc. Symp. Zoo!. Soc. London, (in press).

    Google Scholar 

  • Reynolds, J. W. (1977a) The earthworms (Lumbricidae and Sparganophilidae) of Ontario. Royal Ontario Museum, 141 pp.

    Google Scholar 

  • Reynolds, J. W. (1977b) Earthworms utilized by the American woodcock. Proc. Woodcock Symp., 6, 161–169.

    Google Scholar 

  • Reynolds, J. W. (1977c) Earthworm populations as related to woodcock habitat usage in Central Maine. Proc. Woodcock Symp., 6, 135–146.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rosevear, D. R. (1969) The Rodents of West Africa. Br. Mus. Publ., No. 677.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rudge, M. R. (1968) The food of the common shrew, Sorex araneus L. (Insectivora: Soricidae) in Britain. J. Anim. Ecol., 37, 565–581.

    Google Scholar 

  • Satchell, J. E. (1967) Colour dimorphism in Allolobophora chlorotica Say. (Lumbricidae). J. Anim. Ecol., 36, 623–630.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sheldon, W. G. (1967) The Book of the American Woodcock. University of Massachusetts Press, Amherst. 227 pp.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shilova, S. A., Denisova, A. V., Dmitriev, G. A., Voronova, L. D. and Gardier, M. N. (1971) Effect of some insecticides upon the common mole. Zool. Zh., So, 886–892.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shortridge, G. C. (1934) The Mammals of South West Africa. Heinemann, London. 779 pp.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shrubb, M. (1980) Farming influences on the food and hunting of kestrels. Bird Study, 27, 109–115.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sibly, R. and McCleery, R. H. (1980) Continuous observation of individual herring gulls during the incubation season using radio tags. In A Handbook on Biotelemetry and Radio Tracking (eds. C. J. Amlaner and D. W. Macdonald), Pergamon, Oxford, pp. 345–352.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sibly, R. M. and McCleery, R. H. (in press) The distribution between feeding sites of herring gulls breeding at Walney Island, UK, J. Anim. Ecol.

    Google Scholar 

  • Skoczen, S. (1965) Stomach contents of the mole, Talpa europaea, L. 1758, from southern Poland. Acta Theriol., 11,551–575.

    Google Scholar 

  • Skoczen, S. (1970) Food storage of some insectivorous mammals (Insectivora). Przegl. Zool., 14, 243–248.

    Google Scholar 

  • Skoog, P. (1970) The food of the Swedish badger, Meles meles L. Viltrevy (Stockholm), 7, 1–120.

    Google Scholar 

  • Smith, J. N. M. (197 4a) Thefood searching behaviour oftwo European thrushes. I. Description and analysis of search paths. Behaviour, 48, 276–302.

    Google Scholar 

  • Smith, J. N. M. (197 4b) The food searching behaviour of two European thrushes. II. The adaptiveness of search patterns. Behaviour, 49, 1–61.

    Google Scholar 

  • Smith, M. (1951) The British Amphibians and Reptiles. Collins, London. 318 pp.

    Google Scholar 

  • Southern, H. N. (1969) Prey taken by tawny owls during the breeding season. Ibis, III, 293–299.

    Google Scholar 

  • Southern, H. N. and Corbett, G. B. (eds.) (1977) The Handbook of British Mammals. 2nd edn, Blackwell Scientific Pub!., Oxford. 520 pp.

    Google Scholar 

  • Steward, J. W. (1971) The Snakes of Europe. Fairleigh Dickinson, Newton Abbot, 238 pp.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stickel, W. H., Hayne, D. W. and Stickel, L. F. (1965) Effects of heptachlorcontaminated earthworms on woodcocks. J. Wildl. Mgmt., Z9, 132–146.,

    Google Scholar 

  • Tinbergen, N., Impekovan, M. and Frank, D. (1967) An experiment on spacing out as a defence against predation. Behaviour, z8, 307–321.

    Google Scholar 

  • Walton, W. R. (1928) Earthworms as pests and otherwise. USDA Farmers’ Bull. No. 1569, 14 pp.

    Google Scholar 

  • Watts, C. H. S. (1968) The foods eaten by wood mice (Apodemus sylvaticus) and bank voles (Clethrionomys glareolus) in Wytham Woods, Berkshire. J. Anim. Ecol., 37, 25–41.

    Google Scholar 

  • Whitaker, J. O. (1966) Food of Mus musculus, Peromyscus maniculatus bairdi and Peromyscus leucopus in Vigo County, Indiana. J. Mammal., 47, 473–486.

    Google Scholar 

  • Whitaker, J. O. and Ferraro, M. G. (1963) Summer food of 220 short-tailed shrews from Ithaca, New York. J. Mammal., 44, 419–422.

    Google Scholar 

  • Whitaker, J. O. and Mumford, R. E. (1972) Food and ectoparasites of Indiana shrews. J. Mammal., 53, 329–335

    Google Scholar 

  • Whitaker, J. O. and Schmeltz, L. L. (1973) Food and external parasites of Sorex palustris and food of Sorex cinereus from St. Louis County, Minnesota. J. Mammal., 54, 283–285.

    Google Scholar 

  • Yalden, D. W. and Warburton, A. B. (1979) The diet of the kestrel in the Lake District. Bird Study, z6, 163–170.

    Google Scholar 

  • Yerger, R. W. (1955) Life history notes on the eastern chipmunk Tamais striatus lysteri (Richardson), in central New York. Am. MidI. Nat., 53, 312–323.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Authors
  1. D. W. Macdonald
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Institute of Terrestrial Ecology, Merlewood Research Station, Grange-over-Sands, Cumbria, UK

    J. E. Satchell

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 1983 Chapman and Hall Ltd

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Macdonald, D.W. (1983). Predation on earthworms by terrestrial vertebrates. In: Satchell, J.E. (eds) Earthworm Ecology. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-009-5965-1_35

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-009-5965-1_35

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Dordrecht

  • Print ISBN: 978-94-009-5967-5

  • Online ISBN: 978-94-009-5965-1

  • eBook Packages: Springer Book Archive

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation