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Psycho-Social Assistance

  • Chapter
Assisting Victims of Terrorism

Abstract

In the previous chapters we addressed legislation for victims of terrorism and their needs. The following chapters will discuss specific interventions that relate to the needs of victims of terrorism. These chapters are divided according to the main headings of the CoE Guidelines for Victims of Terrorism, with Chapter 5 discussing access and administration of justice, Chapter 6 discussing compensation, Chapter 7 discussing restorative justice principles and practices. The current chapter focuses on emergency and continuing assistance.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    E.g. Winkel, F.W. (1999). Repeat victimisation and trauma susceptibility: Prospective and longitudinal analyses. In: Van Dijk, J.J.M., van Kaam, R.G.H. & Wemmers, J-A.M. Caring for Crime Victims. Monsey, New York, Criminal Justice Press. and Winkel, F. W. (2002). Slachtofferhulp bij hardnekkige klachten. Over visie, witte beren, stroop en tegenpolen. Inaugural lecture, Free University Amsterdam.

  2. 2.

    Gersons, B.P.R. (2001). Multilevel crisisintervention after disruption of communities by disaster, 17th annual meeting, International Society of Traumatic Stress Studies, New Orleans, 6–9 December 2001. Smeets, E.C. & De Ruijter, A. (2006). Community-based interventions. Working draft. Amsterdam, Impact. Gersons, B.P.R. (2007). Passing by or staying? Community-based interventions related to victims of terrorism. Paper presented at the OCSE High Level Meeting on Victims of Terrorism, Vienna, 14 September 2007.

  3. 3.

    Ruzek, J.I., Maguen, S. & Litz, B.T. (2007). Evidence-based interventions for survivors of terrorism. In: Bongar, B., Brown, L.M., Beutler, L.E., Breckenridge, J.N. & Zimbardo, P.G. (eds.). Psychology of Terrorism, Oxford, Oxford University Press.

  4. 4.

    See the following overviews of the extensive research literature on this subject: Ruzek et al. (2007). Foa, E.B., Cahill, S.P., Boscarino, J.A. et al. (2005) Social, psychological, and psychiatric interventions following terrorist attacks: Recommendations for practice and research. Neuropsychopharmacology, 30, 1806–1817. Beutler, L.E., Reyes, G., Franco, Z. & Housley, J. (2007). The need for proficient mental health professionals in the study of terrorism. In: Bongar, B., Brown, L.M., Beutler, L.E., Breckenridge, J.N. & Zimbardo, P.G. (eds.) Psychology of Terrorism, Oxford, Oxford University Press. National Institute for Clinical Excellence. (2005). Posttraumatic stress disorder. The management of PTSD in adults and children in primary and secondary care. Gaskell and the British Psychological Society. Downloaded from: http://guidance.nice.org.uk/CG26/guidance/pdf/English/?template=download.aspx.

  5. 5.

    Foa et al. (2005); Beutler et al. 2007; Brandon, S.E. & Silke, A.P. (2007). Near- and long-term pyschological effects of exposure to terrorist attacks. In: Bongar, B., Brown, L.M., Beutler, L.E., Breckenridge, J.N. & Zimbardo, P.G. (eds.). Psychology of Terrorism, Oxford, Oxford University Press.

  6. 6.

    Miller, L. (2002). Psychological interventions for terroristic trauma: symptoms, syndromes and treatment. Psychotherapy: Theory/Research/Practice/Training, 39(4), 283–296.

  7. 7.

    Boscarino, J.A., Galea, S., Adams, R.E. et al. (2004). Mental health service and psychiatric medication use following the terrorist attacks in New York City. Psychiatric Services 55, 274–283.

  8. 8.

    Gal R., Jones F.D. (1995). A psychological model of combat stress. In: Jones F.D., Sparacino LR, Wilcox VL, et al. (eds.). War Psychiatry. Office of Surgeon General, Walter Reed Army Institute of Research: Washington, DC.

  9. 9.

    See for the importance of self-efficacy in general: Bandura A. (1997) Self-Efficacy: The Exercise of Control. New York: Freeman and in particular in the situation of victims of terrorism Schaap, I. A. Van Galen, F.M. et al. (2005). Resilience. Impact. Amsterdam. http://www.impact-kenniscentrum.nl/download/file163776605_OnlinePDF.pdf.

  10. 10.

    Laraque, D., Boscarino, J.A., Battista, A., et al. (2004). Reactions and needs of tri-state area pediatricians following the events of September 11: implications for children’s mental health services. Pediatrics 113, 1357–1366.

  11. 11.

    Foa et al. 2005.

  12. 12.

    Gersons 2001; Smeets and De Ruijter 2006.

  13. 13.

    Litz, B. T. & Gray, M.J. (2004). Early intervention for trauma in adults. In B. Litz (ed.). Early Intervention for Trauma and Traumatic Loss, New York, Guildford.

  14. 14.

    Beutler et al. 2007.

  15. 15.

    Bonanno, G. A. (2004). Loss, trauma, and human resilience: Have we underestimated the human capacity to thrive after extremely aversive events? American Psychologist, 59, 20–28.

  16. 16.

    Quoted in Beutler et al. (2007).

  17. 17.

    Van Emmerik, A. A., Kamphuis, J. H., Hulsbosch, A.M., & Emmelkamp, P.M.G.(2002). Single session. debriefing after psychological trauma: a meta analysis. Lancet, 360, 766–771.

  18. 18.

    McNally, R. J., Bryant, R. A. & Ehlers, A. (2003). Does early psychological intervention promote recovery from posttraumatic stress? Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 4, 45–79.

  19. 19.

    Rose, S., Bisson, J. & Wessely, S. (2001). Psychological debriefing for preventing post traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) (Cochrane review). Cochrane library, 3. Oxford University Press, Update Software.

  20. 20.

    Sijbrandij, M., Olff, M., Reitsma, J.B., Carlier, I.V.E., & Gersons, B.P.R. (2006). Emotional or educational debriefing after psychological trauma. British Journal of Psychiatry, 189, 150–155.

  21. 21.

    Foa, E.B. and Rothbaum, B.O. (1998). Treating the Trauma of Rape: Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy for PTSD. New York, Guildford. and Ehlers, A. & Clark, D.M. (2000). A cognitive model of posttraumatic stress disorder. Behavior Research and Therapy, 38, 319–345.

  22. 22.

    Gersons 2007.

  23. 23.

    A mistake famously made by well-known victimologist Ezzat Fattah, see Fattah, E.A. (1999). From a handful of dollars to tea and sympathy: The sad history of victim assistance. In van Dijk, J.J.M., van Kaam, R.G.H. & Wemmers J.-A.M. (eds.). Caring for Crime Victims (pp. 187–206). Monsey, NY: Criminal Justice Press.

  24. 24.

    See McNally et al. 2003.

  25. 25.

    Beutler et al. 2007.

  26. 26.

    See also Stein, B.D. Tanielian, T. L. Vaiana, M.E. et al. (2003), The role of schools in meeting community needs during bioterrorism. Biosecurity and bioterrorism: biodefense strategy, practice and science, 1, 273–281.

  27. 27.

    See for example Litz and Gray (2004). Wohlfarth, T.D., Winkel, F.W. & Van den Brink, W. (2002). Identifying crime victims who are at high risk for PTSD. Developing a practical referral instrument. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 105, 451–460. Winkel, F.W., Wohlfarth, T. & Baluw, E. (2004). Police referral to Victim Support: The predictive value of the RISK (10) Screening instrument. Crisis: The Journal of Intervention and Suicide Prevention, 25, 118–127. Brewin, C.R., Rose, S., Andrews, B. et al. (2002). Brief screening instrument for PTSD. British Journal of Psychiatry, 181, 158–162.

  28. 28.

    See Ehlers and Clark 2000.

  29. 29.

    Brewin, C.R., Andrews, B. & Valentine, J. D. (2000). Meta-analysis of risk factors for posttraumatic stress disorder in trauma-exposed adults. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 69, 748–766 and Kaniasty K. (2005). Social support and traumatic stress. PTSD Research Quarterly, 16, 1–8.

  30. 30.

    Luce, A. & Firth-Cozens, J. (2002). Effects of the Omagh bombing on medical staff working in the local NHS trust: A longitudinal survey. Hospital Medicine, 63, 44–47.

  31. 31.

    Ruzek et al. 2007. See also Somer, E., Tamir, E., Maguen, S. et al. (2005). Brief cognitive-behavioral phone-based intervention targeting anxiety about the threat of attack: a pilot study. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 43, 669–679.

  32. 32.

    See Somer et al. (2005).

  33. 33.

    Beutler et al. 2007; Foa et al. 2005.

  34. 34.

    For instance Ehlers, A. Clark, D.M., Hackmann, A. et al. (2005). Cognitive therapy for post-traumatic stress disorder: development and evaluation. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 43(4), 413–431.

  35. 35.

    See NICE 2005. In addition, Institutes Impact and Trimbos are preparing a guideline in the Netherlands that will contain similar advice.

  36. 36.

    Foa and Rothbaum 1998.

  37. 37.

    Harvey, A.G., Bryant, R.A., & Tarrier, N. (2003). Cognitive behaviour therapy for posttraumatic stress disorder. Clinical Psychology Review, 23, 501–522.

  38. 38.

    See Harvey et al. (2003). Litz, B.T, Bryant, R.A. & Adler, A.B. (2002). Early interventions for trauma. Current status and future directions. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 9, 112–134.

  39. 39.

    Duffy, M., Gillespie, K. & Clark, D.M. (2007). Post-traumatic stress disorder in the context of terrorism and other civil conflict in Northern Ireland: randomised controlled trial. British Medical Journal, 11 May 2007, doi: 10.1136/ bmj.39021.846852.BE.

  40. 40.

    Shapiro, F. (1995). Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing: Basic Principles, Protocols, and Procedures, New York, Guilford Press.

  41. 41.

     See NICE (2005), Seidler, G.H. & Wagner, F.E. (2006) Comparing the efficacy of EMDR and trauma-focused cognitive-behavioral therapy in the treatment of PTSD: a meta-analytic study, Psychological medicine , 36, 1515–1522.

  42. 42.

    Silver, S.M., Rogers, S., Knipe, J. et al. (2005). EMDR therapy following the 9/11 terrorist attacks, International Journal of Stress Management, 12, 29–42.

  43. 43.

    Davidson, P. R., & Parker, K. C. H. (2001). Eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR): A meta-analysis. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 69, 305–316.

  44. 44.

    See Van Emmerik, A.A.P. (2005). Prevention and treatment of chronic posttraumatic stress disorder. Unpublished PhD-thesis Leiden University.

  45. 45.

    See the ‘Interapy’-program, for example Lange A., Rietdijk, D. Hudcovicova, M. et al. (2003). Interapy. A controlled randomized trial of the standardised treatment of posttraumatic stress through the Internet. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 71, 901–909.

  46. 46.

    Shear, M.K., Frank, E., Houck, P.R. & Reynolds C.F. III (2005). Treatment of complicated grief. A randomizedcontrolled trial. Journal of the American Medical Association, 293, 2601–2608. Boelen, P.A., van den Hout, M.A. & van den Bout, J. (2006). A cognitive-behavioral conceptualization of complicated grief. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 13, 109–128. Ehlers, A. (2006). Understanding and treating complicated grief. What can we learn from posttraumatic stress disorder? Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 13, 135–140.

  47. 47.

    Ruzek et al. 2007.

  48. 48.

    See Winkel (2002) for victims in general and Smith, D.W., Kilpatrick, D.G. Falsetti, S.A. (2002). Postterrorism services for victims and surviving family members: Lessons from Pan Am 103, Cognitive and Behavioral Practice, 9, 280–286.and Lee, A., Isaac, M. & Janca, A. (2002). Post-traumatic stress disorder and terrorism. Current Opinion in Psychiatry, 15(6), 633–637, for victims of terrorism in particular.

  49. 49.

    See Herman, J.L. (2003). The mental health of crime victims: impact of legal intervention. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 16(2), 159–166.

  50. 50.

    See Smeets and de Ruijter 2006.

  51. 51.

    In which support workers start demonstrating traumatic symptoms themselves, See Figley, C.R. (ed.), Compassion Fatigue: Coping with Secondary Traumatic Stress Disorder in Those Who Treat the Traumatised, New York, Brunner/Mazel.

  52. 52.

    Kaniasty, K. & Norris, F. (2004). Social support in the aftermath of disasters, catastrophes, and acts of terrorism: Altruistic, overwhelmed, uncertain, antagonistic, and patriotic communities. In: Ursano R., Norwood A. & Fullerton C. (eds.). Bioterrorism: Psychological and Public Health Interventions. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.

  53. 53.

    See also Paez, D., Besabe, N. et al. (2007) Social Sharing, Participation in Demonstrations, Emotional Climate, and Coping with Collective Violence After the March 11th Madrid Bombings, Journal of Social Issues, 63(2), 323–337.

  54. 54.

    E.g. Crelinsten (1997).

  55. 55.

    McDermott, R. & Zimbardo, P.G. (2007). The psychological consequences of terrorist alerts. In: Bongar, B., Brown, L.M., Beutler, L.E., Breckenridge, J.N. & Zimbardo, P.G. (eds.). Psychology of Terrorism, Oxford, Oxford University Press.

  56. 56.

    Foa et al. 2005; Crelinsten 1997; Boscarino, J.A., Figley, C.R., Adams, R.E. (2003). Fear of terrorism in New York after the September 11 terrorist attacks: implications for emergency mental health and preparedness. International Journal of Emergency Mental Health, 5, 199–209.; Breckenridge, J.N. & Zimbardo, P.G. (2007). The strategy of terrorism and the psychology of Mass-Mediated fear. In: Bongar, B., Brown, L.M., Beutler, L.E., Breckenridge, J.N. & Zimbardo, P.G. (eds.). Psychology of Terrorism, Oxford, Oxford University Press. Slone, M. (2000). Responses to media coverage of terrorism. Journal of Conflict Resolution, 44, 508–522.

  57. 57.

    Breckenridge and Zimbardo 2007.

  58. 58.

    See McCauley, C. (2007). War versus justice in response to terrorist attacks: competing frames and their implications. In: Bongar, B., Brown, L.M., Beutler, L.E., Breckenridge, J.N. & Zimbardo, P.G. (eds.) Psychology of Terrorism, Oxford, Oxford University Press.

  59. 59.

    See Ericson, R.V., Baranek, P.M. & Chan, J.B.L. (1991), Representing Order: Crime, Law and Justice in the News Media, Toronto, University of Toronto Press.

  60. 60.

    See Pfefferbaum (2003).

  61. 61.

    E.g. Crelinsten (1997).

  62. 62.

    Lickel, B. Miller, N., Stenstrom, D.M. et al. (2006). Vicarious retribution: The role of collective blame in intergroup aggression. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 10, 372–390.

  63. 63.

    Breckenridge and Zimbardo 2007.

  64. 64.

    See Foa et al. (2005).

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Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. INTERVICT, University of Tilbug, 5000, LE, Tilburg, Netherlands

    Antony Pemberton

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  1. Antony Pemberton
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Editors and Affiliations

  1. International Victimology, Tilburg University, Tilburg, 5000 LE, Netherlands

    Rianne Letschert

  2. International Victimology, Tilburg University, Tilburg, 5000 LE, Netherlands

    Antony Pemberton

  3. Leuvens Instituut vr Criminologie (LINC), Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Herbert Hooverplein 9, Leuven, 3000, Belgium

    Ines Staiger

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Pemberton, A. (2009). Psycho-Social Assistance. In: Letschert, R., Pemberton, A., Staiger, I. (eds) Assisting Victims of Terrorism. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-90-481-3025-2_4

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