Skip to main content

Update on Infant Skin with Special Focus on Dryness and the Impact of Moisturizers

  • Chapter
  • First Online:

Abstract

Throughout infancy, skin differs from that of an adult in structure, function, and composition and has water-handling properties that are markedly distinct. Although competent to prevent dehydration, immature skin barrier function leaves infants especially vulnerable to the environment with potential for development of skin irritations elicited, for example, by contact with allergens or exposure to harsh climatic conditions. To this is added a relatively high risk for the development of the inflammatory disease atopic dermatitis. Specially formulated moisturizers are thus needed that respect the specific properties of infant skin and protect it by enhancing the barrier properties without interfering with the natural development.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution.

Buying options

Chapter
USD   29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD   219.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD   279.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD   279.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Learn about institutional subscriptions

References

  1. Lippens S, Hoste E, Vandenabeele P, Agostinis P, Declercq W (2009) Cell death in the skin. Apoptosis 14:549–569

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  2. Williams AC (2003) Structure and function of human skin. Transdermal and topical drug delivery. Pharmaceutical Press, London

    Google Scholar 

  3. Elias PM (1991) Epidermal barrier function: intercellular lamellar lipid structures, origin, composition and metabolism. J Control Release 15:199–208

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  4. Candi E, Oddi S, Terrinoni A, Paradisi A, Ranalli M et al (2001) Transglutaminase 5 cross-links loricrin, involucrin, and small proline-rich proteins in vitro. J Biol Chem 276:35014–35023

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  5. Pillai S, Cornell M, Oresajo C (2010) Epidermal barrier. In: Draelos ZD (ed) Cosmetic dermatology. Wiley-Blackwell, Chichester, pp 3–12

    Google Scholar 

  6. Wertz PW (2000) Lipids and barrier function of the skin. Acta Derm Venereol Suppl (Stockh) 208:7–11

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  7. Suzuki Y, Nomura J, Koyama J, Horii I (1994) The role of proteases in stratum corneum: involvement in stratum corneum desquamation. Arch Dermatol Res 286:249–253

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  8. Akiyama M, Smith LT, Yoneda K, Holbrook KA, Hohl D et al (1999) Periderm cells form cornified cell envelope in their regression process during human epidermal development. J Invest Dermatol 112:903–909

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  9. Evans NJ, Rutter N (1986) Development of the epidermis in the newborn. Biol Neonate 49:74–80

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  10. Nikolovski J, Stamatas GN, Kollias N, Wiegand BC (2008) Barrier function and water-holding and transport properties of infant stratum corneum are different from adult and continue to develop through the first year of life. J Invest Dermatol 128:1728–1736

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  11. Stamatas GN, Nikolovski J, Luedtke MA, Kollias N, Wiegand BC (2010) Infant skin microstructure assessed in vivo differs from adult skin in organization and at the cellular level. Pediatr Dermatol 27:125–131

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  12. Chiou YB, Blume-Peytavi U (2004) Stratum corneum maturation. A review of neonatal skin function. Skin Pharmacol Physiol 17:57–66

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  13. Giusti F, Martella A, Bertoni L, Seidenari S (2001) Skin barrier, hydration, and pH of the skin of infants under 2 years of age. Pediatr Dermatol 18:93–96

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  14. Akdis CA, Akdis M, Bieber T, Bindslev-Jensen C, Boguniewicz M et al (2006) Diagnosis and treatment of atopic dermatitis in children and adults: European Academy of Allergology and Clinical Immunology/American Academy of Allergy, Asthma and Immunology/PRACTALL Consensus Report. J Allergy Clin Immunol 118:152–169

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  15. Berg RW, Milligan MC, Sarbaugh FC (1994) Association of skin wetness and pH with diaper dermatitis. Pediatr Dermatol 11:18–20

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  16. Stamatas GN, Zerweck C, Grove G, Martin KM (2011) Documentation of impaired epidermal barrier in mild and moderate diaper dermatitis in vivo using noninvasive methods. Pediatr Dermatol 28:99–107

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  17. Agache P, Blanc D, Barrand C, Laurent R (1980) Sebum levels during the first year of life. Br J Dermatol 103:643–649

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  18. Behrendt H, Green M (1969) Drug-induced localized sweating in full-size and low-birth-weight neonates. Am J Dis Child 117:299–306

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  19. Stamatas GN, Nikolovski J, Mack MC, Kollias N (2011) Infant skin physiology and development during the first years of life: a review of recent findings based on in vivo studies. Int J Cosmet Sci 33:17–24

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  20. Lee SH, Jeong SK, Ahn SK (2006) An update of the defensive barrier function of skin. Yonsei Med J 47:293–306

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  21. Rawlings AV (2003) Trends in stratum corneum research and the management of dry skin conditions. Int J Cosmet Sci 25:63–95

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  22. Rawlings AV, Scott IR, Harding CR, Bowser PA (1994) Stratum corneum moisturization at the molecular level. J Invest Dermatol 103:731–741

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  23. Machado M, Salgado TM, Hadgraft J, Lane ME (2010) The relationship between transepidermal water loss and skin permeability. Int J Pharm 384:73–77

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  24. Rawlings A, Harding C, Watkinson A, Banks J, Ackerman C et al (1995) The effect of glycerol and humidity on desmosome degradation in stratum corneum. Arch Dermatol Res 287:457–464

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  25. Rawlings AV, Harding CR (2004) Moisturization and skin barrier function. Dermatol Ther 17(Suppl 1):43–48

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  26. Wertz PW (2004) Stratum corneum lipids and water. Exog Dermatol 3:53–56

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  27. Scott IR, Harding CR (1986) Filaggrin breakdown to water binding compounds during development of the rat stratum corneum is controlled by the water activity of the environment. Dev Biol 115:84–92

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  28. Bouwstra JA, Groenink HW, Kempenaar JA, Romeijn SG, Ponec M (2008) Water distribution and natural moisturizer factor content in human skin equivalents are regulated by environmental relative humidity. J Invest Dermatol 128:378–388

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  29. Choi EH, Man MQ, Wang F, Zhang X, Brown BE et al (2005) Is endogenous glycerol a determinant of stratum corneum hydration in humans? J Invest Dermatol 125:288–293

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  30. Sator PG, Schmidt JB, Honigsmann H (2003) Comparison of epidermal hydration and skin surface lipids in healthy individuals and in patients with atopic dermatitis. J Am Acad Dermatol 48:352–358

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  31. Nakagawa N, Sakai S, Matsumoto M, Yamada K, Nagano M et al (2004) Relationship between NMF (lactate and potassium) content and the physical properties of the stratum corneum in healthy subjects. J Invest Dermatol 122:755–763

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  32. Sato J (2002) Desquamation and the role of stratum corneum enzymes. In: Leyden JJ, Rawlings AV (eds) Skin moisturization. Marcel Dekker Inc, New York, pp 79–92

    Google Scholar 

  33. Watkinson A, Harding C, Moore A, Coan P (2001) Water modulation of stratum corneum chymotryptic enzyme activity and desquamation. Arch Dermatol Res 293:470–476

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  34. Sato J, Denda M, Nakanishi J, Nomura J, Koyama J (1998) Cholesterol sulfate inhibits proteases that are involved in desquamation of stratum corneum. J Invest Dermatol 111:189–193

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  35. Deraison C, Bonnart C, Lopez F, Besson C, Robinson R et al (2007) LEKTI fragments specifically inhibit KLK5, KLK7, and KLK14 and control desquamation through a pH-dependent interaction. Mol Biol Cell 18:3607–3619

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  36. Hachem JP, Man MQ, Crumrine D, Uchida Y, Brown BE et al (2005) Sustained serine proteases activity by prolonged increase in pH leads to degradation of lipid processing enzymes and profound alterations of barrier function and stratum corneum integrity. J Invest Dermatol 125:510–520

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  37. Hachem JP, Crumrine D, Fluhr J, Brown BE, Feingold KR et al (2003) pH directly regulates epidermal permeability barrier homeostasis, and stratum corneum integrity/cohesion. J Invest Dermatol 121:345–353

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  38. Choi EH, Man MQ, Xu P, Xin S, Liu Z et al (2007) Stratum corneum acidification is impaired in moderately aged human and murine skin. J Invest Dermatol 127:2847–2856

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  39. Menon GK, Price LF, Bommannan B, Elias PM, Feingold KR (1994) Selective obliteration of the epidermal calcium gradient leads to enhanced lamellar body secretion. J Invest Dermatol 102:789–795

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  40. Hitomi K (2005) Transglutaminases in skin epidermis. Eur J Dermatol 15:313–319

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  41. Menon GK, Grayson S, Elias PM (1985) Ionic calcium reservoirs in mammalian epidermis: ultrastructural localization by ion-capture cytochemistry. J Invest Dermatol 84:508–512

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  42. Elias P, Ahn S, Brown B, Crumrine D, Feingold KR (2002) Origin of the epidermal calcium gradient: regulation by barrier status and role of active vs passive mechanisms. J Invest Dermatol 119:1269–1274

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  43. Chu M, Kollias N (2011) Documentation of normal stratum corneum scaling in an average population: features of differences among age, ethnicity and body site. Br J Dermatol 164:497–507

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  44. Schatz H, Altmeyer PJ, Kligman AM (1995) Dry skin and scaling evaluated by D-squames and image analysis. In: Serup J, Jemec GBE (eds) Handbook of non-invasive methods and the skin. CRC Press, Boca Raton, pp 377–384

    Google Scholar 

  45. Corcuff P (2004) In vivo confocal microscopy. In: Agache P, Humbert P (eds) Measuring the skin. Springer, Berlin/Heidelberg/New York, pp 183–193

    Google Scholar 

  46. Berardesca E (1997) EEMCO guidance for the assessment of stratum corneum hydration: electrical methods. Skin Res Technol 3:126–132

    Article  Google Scholar 

  47. Blichmann CW, Serup J (1988) Assessment of skin moisture. Measurement of electrical conductance, capacitance and transepidermal water loss. Acta Derm Venereol 68:284–290

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  48. Caspers PJ, Lucassen GW, Bruining HA, Puppels GJ (2000) Automated depth-scanning confocal Raman microspectrometer for rapid in vivo determination of water concentration profiles in human skin. J Raman Spectrosc 31:813–818

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  49. Caspers PJ, Lucassen GW, Carter EA, Bruining HA, Puppels GJ (2001) In vivo confocal Raman microspectroscopy of the skin: noninvasive determination of molecular concentration profiles. J Invest Dermatol 116:434–442

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  50. Brancaleon L, Bamberg MP, Sakamaki T, Kollias N (2001) Attenuated total reflection-Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy as a possible method to investigate biophysical parameters of stratum corneum in vivo. J Invest Dermatol 116:380–386

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  51. Levin J, Maibach H (2005) The correlation between transepidermal water loss and percutaneous absorption: an overview. J Control Release 103:291–299

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  52. Distante F, Berardesca E (1995) Transepidermal water loss. In: Berardesca E, Elsner P, Wilhelm K-P, Maibach HI (eds) Bioengineering of the skin: methods and instrumentation. CRC Press, Boca Raton/New York/London/Tokyo, pp 1–4

    Google Scholar 

  53. Imhof RE, De Jesus ME, Xiao P, Ciortea LI, Berg EP (2009) Closed-chamber transepidermal water loss measurement: microclimate, calibration and performance. Int J Cosmet Sci 31:97–118

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  54. Pinnagoda J, Tupker RA (1995) Measurement of the transepidermal water loss. In: Serup J, Jemec BE (eds) Handbook of non-invasive methods and the skin. CRC Press, Boca Raton/Ann Arbor/London/Tokyo, pp 173–178

    Google Scholar 

  55. Tagami H, Kanamaru Y, Inoue K, Suehisa S, Inoue F et al (1982) Water sorption–desorption test of the skin in vivo for functional assessment of the stratum corneum. J Invest Dermatol 78:425–428

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  56. Hoath SB, Pickens WL, Visscher MO (2006) The biology of vernix caseosa. Int J Cosmet Sci 28:319–333

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  57. Vitellaro-Zuccarello L, Cappelletti S, Dal Pozzo Rossi V, Sari-Gorla M (1994) Stereological analysis of collagen and elastic fibers in the normal human dermis: variability with age, sex, and body region. Anat Rec 238:153–162

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  58. Hoeger PH, Enzmann CC (2002) Skin physiology of the neonate and young infant: a prospective study of functional skin parameters during early infancy. Pediatr Dermatol 19:256–262

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  59. Saijo S, Tagami H (1991) Dry skin of newborn infants: functional analysis of the stratum corneum. Pediatr Dermatol 8:155–159

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  60. Yosipovitch G, Maayan-Metzger A, Merlob P, Sirota L (2000) Skin barrier properties in different body areas in neonates. Pediatrics 106:105–108

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  61. Visscher MO, Chatterjee R, Munson KA, Pickens WL, Hoath SB (2000) Changes in diapered and nondiapered infant skin over the first month of life. Pediatr Dermatol 17:45–51

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  62. Mack MC, Tierney NK, Ruvolo E Jr, Stamatas GN, Martin KM et al (2010) Development of solar UVR-related pigmentation begins as early as the first summer of life. J Invest Dermatol 130:2335–2338

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  63. Gallagher RP, Hill GB, Bajdik CD, Fincham S, Coldman AJ et al (1995) Sunlight exposure, pigmentary factors, and risk of nonmelanocytic skin cancer. I. Basal cell carcinoma. Arch Dermatol 131:157–163

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  64. Mills O, Messina JL (2009) Pediatric melanoma: a review. Cancer Control 16:225–233

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  65. Dominguez-Bello MG, Costello EK, Contreras M, Magris M, Hidalgo G et al (2010) Delivery mode shapes the acquisition and structure of the initial microbiota across multiple body habitats in newborns. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 107:11971–11975

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  66. Capone K, Dowd SE, Stamatas GN, Nikolovski J (2010) Survey of bacterial diversity on infant skin over the first year of life (abstract 744). J Invest Dermatol 130(S1):S124

    Google Scholar 

  67. Costello EK, Lauber CL, Hamady M, Fierer N, Gordon JI et al (2009) Bacterial community variation in human body habitats across space and time. Science 326:1694–1697

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  68. Gao Z, Tseng CH, Pei Z, Blaser MJ (2007) Molecular analysis of human forearm superficial skin bacterial biota. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 104:2927–2932

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  69. Grice EA, Kong HH, Conlan S, Deming CB, Davis J et al (2009) Topographical and temporal diversity of the human skin microbiome. Science 324:1190–1192

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  70. Grice EA, Kong HH, Renaud G, Young AC, Bouffard GG et al (2008) A diversity profile of the human skin microbiota. Genome Res 18:1043–1050

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  71. Wanke I, Steffen H, Christ C, Krismer B, Gotz F et al (2011) Skin commensals amplify the innate immune response to pathogens by activation of distinct signaling pathways. J Invest Dermatol 131:382–390

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  72. Elias PM (1983) Epidermal lipids, barrier function, and desquamation. J Invest Dermatol 80(Suppl):44s–49s

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  73. Braun-Falco O, Korting HC (1986) Normal pH value of human skin. Hautarzt 37:126–129

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  74. Fluhr JW, Pfisterer S, Gloor M (2000) Direct comparison of skin physiology in children and adults with bioengineering methods. Pediatr Dermatol 17:436–439

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  75. Matousek JL, Campbell KL (2002) A comparative review of cutaneous pH. Vet Dermatol 13:293–300

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  76. Korting HC, Hubner K, Greiner K, Hamm G, Braun-Falco O (1990) Differences in the skin surface pH and bacterial microflora due to the long-term application of synthetic detergent preparations of pH 5.5 and pH 7.0. Results of a crossover trial in healthy volunteers. Acta Derm Venereol 70:429–431

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  77. Mauro T, Holleran WM, Grayson S, Gao WN, Man MQ et al (1998) Barrier recovery is impeded at neutral pH, independent of ionic effects: implications for extracellular lipid processing. Arch Dermatol Res 290:215–222

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  78. Henderson CA, Taylor J, Cunliffe WJ (2000) Sebum excretion rates in mothers and neonates. Br J Dermatol 142:110–111

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  79. Harpin VA, Rutter N (1982) Development of emotional sweating in the newborn infant. Arch Dis Child 57:691–695

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  80. Rutter N (2003) Eccrine sweating in the newborn. In: Hoath SB, Maibach HI (eds) Neonatal skin structure and function. Marcel Dekker, New York

    Google Scholar 

  81. Brenner M, Hearing VJ (2008) The protective role of melanin against UV damage in human skin. Photochem Photobiol 84:539–549

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  82. Berneburg M, Surber C (2009) Children and sun protection. Br J Dermatol 161(Suppl 3):33–39

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  83. Chu M, Tierney N, Ruvolo E, Stamatas GN, Kollias N et al (2010) Infant skin is similar in New Jersey and Mumbai and markedly different in Beijing in winter (abstract 253). J Invest Dermatol 130(S1):S43

    Google Scholar 

  84. Rogers J, Harding C, Mayo A, Banks J, Rawlings A (1996) Stratum corneum lipids: the effect of ageing and the seasons. Arch Dermatol Res 288:765–770

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  85. Hirao T, Aoki H, Yoshida T, Sato Y, Kamoda H (1996) Elevation of interleukin 1 receptor antagonist in the stratum corneum of sun-exposed and ultraviolet B-irradiated human skin. J Invest Dermatol 106:1102–1107

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  86. Terui T, Hirao T, Sato Y, Uesugi T, Honda M et al (1998) An increased ratio of interleukin-1 receptor antagonist to interleukin-1alpha in inflammatory skin diseases. Exp Dermatol 7:327–334

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  87. Perkins MA, Osterhues MA, Farage MA, Robinson MK (2001) A noninvasive method to assess skin irritation and compromised skin conditions using simple tape adsorption of molecular markers of inflammation. Skin Res Technol 7:227–237

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  88. Tierney NK, Kothari PD, Martin KM (2010) Investigation into skin reactivity as a function of age: a focus on children less than 2 years of age. International Pediatric Association 26th International Congress of Pediatrics. Johannesburg, South Africa

    Google Scholar 

  89. Adalat S, Wall D, Goodyear H (2007) Diaper dermatitis-frequency and contributory factors in hospital attending children. Pediatr Dermatol 24:483–488

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  90. Jordan WE, Lawson KD, Berg RW, Franxman JJ, Marrer AM (1986) Diaper dermatitis: frequency and severity among a general infant population. Pediatr Dermatol 3:198–207

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  91. Visscher MO, Chatterjee R, Munson KA, Bare DE, Hoath SB (2000) Development of diaper rash in the newborn. Pediatr Dermatol 17:52–57

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  92. Atherton DJ (2001) The aetiology and management of irritant diaper dermatitis. J Eur Acad Dermatol Venereol 15(Suppl 1):1–4

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  93. Buckingham KW, Berg RW (1986) Etiologic factors in diaper dermatitis: the role of feces. Pediatr Dermatol 3:107–112

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  94. Berg RW, Buckingham KW, Stewart RL (1986) Etiologic factors in diaper dermatitis: the role of urine. Pediatr Dermatol 3:102–106

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  95. Benjamin L (1987) Clinical correlates with diaper dermatitis. Pediatrician 14(Suppl 1):21–26

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  96. Atherton D, Mills K (2004) What can be done to keep babies’ skin healthy? RCM Midwives 7:288–290

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  97. Blume-Peytavi U, Cork MJ, Faergemann J, Szczapa J, Vanaclocha F et al (2009) Bathing and cleansing in newborns from day 1 to first year of life: recommendations from a European round table meeting. J Eur Acad Dermatol Venereol 23:751–759

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  98. Gupta AK, Skinner AR (2004) Management of diaper dermatitis. Int J Dermatol 43:830–834

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  99. Laughter D, Istvan JA, Tofte SJ, Hanifin JM (2000) The prevalence of atopic dermatitis in Oregon schoolchildren. J Am Acad Dermatol 43:649–655

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  100. Schultz Larsen F, Diepgen T, Svensson A (1996) The occurrence of atopic dermatitis in north Europe: an international questionnaire study. J Am Acad Dermatol 34:760–764

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  101. Kay J, Gawkrodger DJ, Mortimer MJ, Jaron AG (1994) The prevalence of childhood atopic eczema in a general population. J Am Acad Dermatol 30:35–39

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  102. Cork MJ, Danby SG, Vasilopoulos Y, Hadgraft J, Lane ME et al (2009) Epidermal barrier dysfunction in atopic dermatitis. J Invest Dermatol 129:1892–1908

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  103. Spergel JM, Paller AS (2003) Atopic dermatitis and the atopic march. J Allergy Clin Immunol 112:S118–S127

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  104. Gustafsson D, Sjoberg O, Foucard T (2000) Development of allergies and asthma in infants and young children with atopic dermatitis – a prospective follow-up to 7 years of age. Allergy 55:240–245

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  105. Eichenfield LF, Hanifin JM, Beck LA, Lemanske RF Jr, Sampson HA et al (2003) Atopic dermatitis and asthma: parallels in the evolution of treatment. Pediatrics 111:608–616

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  106. Seidenari S, Giusti G (1995) Objective assessment of the skin of children affected by atopic dermatitis: a study of pH, capacitance and TEWL in eczematous and clinically uninvolved skin. Acta Derm Venereol 75:429–433

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  107. Krakowski AC, Eichenfield LF, Dohil MA (2008) Management of atopic dermatitis in the pediatric population. Pediatrics 122:812–824

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  108. Beck LA, Leung DY (2000) Allergen sensitization through the skin induces systemic allergic responses. J Allergy Clin Immunol 106:S258–S263

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  109. Arshad SH, Bateman B, Sadeghnejad A, Gant C, Matthews SM (2007) Prevention of allergic disease during childhood by allergen avoidance: the Isle of Wight prevention study. J Allergy Clin Immunol 119:307–313

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  110. Loden M (2003) Role of topical emollients and moisturizers in the treatment of dry skin barrier disorders. Am J Clin Dermatol 4:771–788

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  111. Stamatas GN, de Sterke J, Hauser M, von Stetten O, van der Pol A (2008) Lipid uptake and skin occlusion following topical application of oils on adult and infant skin. J Dermatol Sci 50:135–142

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  112. Harding CR, Watkinson A, Rawlings AV, Scott IR (2000) Dry skin, moisturization and corneodesmolysis. Int J Cosmet Sci 22:21–52

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  113. Lund CH, Kuller J, Raines DA, Ecklund S, Archambault ME et al (2007) Neonatal skin care – evidence-based clinical practice guideline. Association of Women’s Health, Obstetric and Neonatal Nurses and the National Association of Neonatal Nurses, Washington

    Google Scholar 

  114. Garcia Bartels N, Mleczko A, Schink T, Proquitte H, Wauer RR et al (2009) Influence of bathing or washing on skin barrier function in newborns during the first four weeks of life. Skin Pharmacol Physiol 22:248–257

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  115. Bryanton J, Walsh D, Barrett M, Gaudet D (2004) Tub bathing versus traditional sponge bathing for the newborn. J Obstet Gynecol Neonatal Nurs 33:704–712

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  116. Henningsson A, Nystrom B, Tunnell R (1981) Bathing or washing babies after birth? Lancet 2:1401–1403

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  117. Eichenfield LF, Hanifin JM, Luger TA, Stevens SR, Pride HB (2003) Consensus conference on pediatric atopic dermatitis. J Am Acad Dermatol 49:1088–1095

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  118. Garcia Bartels N, Scheufele R, Prosch F, Schink T, Proquitte H et al (2010) Effect of standardized skin care regimens on neonatal skin barrier function in different body areas. Pediatr Dermatol 27:1–8

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  119. Telofski LS, Niciporciukas C, Kurtz ES (2007) Regimen of a moisturizing cleanser and gentle moisturizer provides soothing relief of dry skin and extra-dry patches for infants. International Pediatric Association 25th International Congress of Pediatrics. Athens, Greece

    Google Scholar 

  120. Telofski LS, Niciporciukas C, Kurtz ES (2007) Evaluation of tolerance and efficacy of an infant facial balm on mild to moderate dry/chapped facial skin. International Pediatric Association 25th International Congress of Pediatrics. Athens, Greece

    Google Scholar 

  121. Warner RR, Stone KJ, Boissy YL (2003) Hydration disrupts human stratum corneum ultrastructure. J Invest Dermatol 120:275–284

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  122. Warren R, Ertel KD, Bartolo RG, Levine MJ, Bryant PB et al (1996) The influence of hard water (calcium) and surfactants on irritant contact dermatitis. Contact Dermatitis 35:337–343

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  123. McNally NJ, Williams HC, Phillips DR, Smallman-Raynor M, Lewis S et al (1998) Atopic eczema and domestic water hardness. Lancet 352:527–531

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  124. Loden M, Buraczewska I, Edlund F (2004) Irritation potential of bath and shower oils before and after use: a double-blind randomized study. Br J Dermatol 150:1142–1147

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  125. Buraczewska I, Berne B, Lindberg M, Torma H, Loden M (2007) Changes in skin barrier function following long-term treatment with moisturizers, a randomized controlled trial. Br J Dermatol 156:492–498

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  126. Visscher MO, Chatterjee R, Ebel JP, LaRuffa AA, Hoath SB (2002) Biomedical assessment and instrumental evaluation of healthy infant skin. Pediatr Dermatol 19:473–481

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgement

The authors would like to thank Dr. Beate Gerstbrein of Ascopharm for editorial assistance.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Georgios N. Stamatas Ph.D. .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2012 Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Stamatas, G.N., Tierney, N.K. (2012). Update on Infant Skin with Special Focus on Dryness and the Impact of Moisturizers. In: Lodén, M., Maibach, H. (eds) Treatment of Dry Skin Syndrome. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-27606-4_20

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-27606-4_20

  • Published:

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg

  • Print ISBN: 978-3-642-27605-7

  • Online ISBN: 978-3-642-27606-4

  • eBook Packages: MedicineMedicine (R0)

Publish with us

Policies and ethics