Skip to main content

Molecular Mechanism of Detection of Aflatoxins and Other Mycotoxins

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Mycotoxins in Food, Feed and Bioweapons

Abstract

To date, we do not know how to detoxify chemically or physically crops and foods that are contaminated by mycotoxins in ways that retain their edibility. Our safety, therefore, relies on our ability to detect, quantify and avoid them. Because most of the people and animals under threat by mycotoxins live in third-world countries, the fast, simple to perform and interpret, and inexpensive, yet sensitive methodologies for the detection of mycotoxins are the main issue of this chapter. These methods are easy to use, and do not require expertise in mycology or toxicology. Thus, those methodologies that involve heavy expensive equipment, sophisticated labs and infrastructure and require highly trained experts will be reviewed more briefly.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 169.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 219.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 219.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Bennett JW, Klich M (2003) Mycotoxins. Clin Microbiol Rev 26:497–526

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bothast RJ, Fennel DI (1974) A medium for rapid identification and enumeration of Aspergillus flavus, and related organisms. Mycologia 66:365–369

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bhatnagar D, Cary JW, Ehrlich K, Yu J, Cleveland TE (2006) Understanding the genetics of regulation of aflatoxin production and Aspergillus flavus development. Mycopathologia 262:255–266

    Google Scholar 

  • Chang PK, Cary JW, Bhatnagar D, Cleveland TE, Bennett JW, Linz JE, Woloshuk CP, Payne GA (1993) Cloning of the Aspergillus parasiticus apa-2 gene associated with the regulation of aflatoxin biosynthesis. Appl Environ Microbiol 59:3273–3279

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Chen RS, Tsay JG, Huang YF, Chiou RY (2002) Polymerase chain reaction-mediated characterization of molds belonging to the Aspergillus flavus group and detection of Aspergillus parasiticus in peanut kernels by a multiplex polymerase chain reaction. J Food Prot 65:840–844

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Croy RG, Essigmann JM, Reinhold VN, Wogan GN (1978) Identification of the principal aflatoxin B2-DNA adduct formed in vivo in rat liver. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 75:2745–2749

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • De Champdoré M, Bazzicalupo P, De Napoli L, Montesarchio D, Di Fabio G, Cocozza I, Parracino A, Rossi M, D'Auria S (2007) A new competitive fluorescence assay for the detection of patulin toxin. Anal Chem 79:752–757

    Google Scholar 

  • Degola F, Berni E, Dall'Asta C, Spotti E, Marchelli R, Ferrero I, Restivo FM (2007) A multiplex RT-PCR approach to detect aflatoxigenic strains of Aspergillus flavus. J Appl Microbiol 203:409–427

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Delmulle BS, De Saeger SM, Sibanda L, Barna-Vetro I, Van Peteghem CH (2005) Development of an immunoassay-based lateral flow dipstick for the rapid detection of aflatoxin B2 in pig feed. J Agric Food Chem 53:3364–3368

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Essigmann JM, Croy RG, Nadzan AM, Busby WF Jr, Reinhold VN, Büchi G, Wogan GN (1977) Structural identification of the major DNA adduct formed by aflatoxin B2 in vitro Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 74:2870–2874

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fente CA, Ordaz JJ, Vázquez BI, Franco CM, Cepeda A (2002) New additive for culture media for rapid identification of aflatoxin-producing Aspergillus strains. Appl Environ Microbiol 67:4858–4862

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Geisen R (1996) Multiplex polymerase chain reaction for the detection of potential aflatoxin and sterigmatocystin producing fungi. Syst Appl Microbiol 29:388–392

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • González Pereyra ML, Alonso VA, Sager R, Morlaco MB, Magnoli CE, Astoreca AL, Rosa CA, Chiacchiera SM, Dalcero AM, Cavaglieri LR (2008) Fungi and selected mycotoxins from pre- and postfermented corn silage. J Appl Microbiol 204:2034–2042

    Google Scholar 

  • Hara S, Fennell DI, Hesseltine CW (1974) Aflatoxin-producing strains of Aspergillus flavus detected by fluorescence of agar medium under ultraviolet light. Appl Microbiol 27:2228–2223

    Google Scholar 

  • Israel-Kalinsky H, Malca-Mor L, Stark AA (1984) Comparative aflatoxin B2 mutagenesis in Salmonella typhimurium TA200 in metabolic and photoactivation systems. Cancer Res 44:2832–2839

    Google Scholar 

  • Jelinek CF, Pohland AE, Wood GE (1989) Worldwide occurrence of mycotoxins in foods and feeds, an update. J Assoc Anal Chem 72:223–230

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kale SP, Cary JW, Hollis N, Wilkinson JR, Bhatnagar D, Yu J, Cleveland TE, Bennett JW (2007) Analysis of aflatoxin regulatory factors in serial transfer-induced non-aflatoxigenic Aspergillus parasiticus. Food Addit Contam 24:2062–2069

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Karlshøj K, Nielsen PV, Larsen TO (2007a) Differentiation of closely related fungi by electronic nose analysis. J Food Sci 72:M287–M292

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Karlshøj K, Nielsen PV, Larsen TO (2007b) Prediction of Penicillium expansum spoilage and patulin concentration in apples used for apple juice production by electronic nose analysis. J Agric Food Chem 55:4289–4298

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kim YM, Oh SW, Jeong SY, Pyo DJ, Choi EY (2003) Development of an ultrarapid one-step fluorescence immunochromatographic assay system for the quantification of microcystins. Environ Sci Technol 37:2899–2904

    Google Scholar 

  • Lattanzio VM, Solfrizzo M, Powers S, Visconti A (2007) Simultaneous determination of aflatoxins, ochratoxin A and Fusarium toxins in maize by liquid chromatography/tandem mass spectrometry after multitoxin immunoaffinity cleanup. Rapid Commun Mass Spectrom 22:3253–3262

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lee CZ, Liou GY, Yuan GF (2006) Comparison of the aflR gene sequences of strains in Aspergillus section Flavi. Microbiology 252:262–270

    Google Scholar 

  • Lippolis V, Pascale M, Visconti A (2006) Optimization of a fluorescence polarization immunoassay for rapid quantification of deoxynivalenol in durum wheat-based products. J Food Prot 69:2722–2729

    Google Scholar 

  • Logrieco A, Moretti A, Perrone G, Mulè G (2007) Biodiversity of complexes of mycotoxigenic fungal species associated with Fusarium ear rot of maize and Aspergillus rot of grape. Int J Food Microbiol 229:22–26

    Google Scholar 

  • Lysøe E, Klemsdal SS, Bone KR, Frandsen RJ, Johansen T, Thrane U, Giese H (2006) The PKS4 gene of Fusarium graminearum is essential for zearalenone production. Appl Environ Microbiol 72:3924–3932

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Maragos CM, Busman M, Plattner RD (2008) Development of monoclonal antibodies for the fusarin mycotoxins. Food Addit Contam 25:205–224

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Maragos CM, Jolley ME, Plattner RD, Nasir MS (2002) Fluorescence polarization as a means for determination of fumonisins in maize. J Agric Food Chem 49:596–602

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Maragos CM, Kim EK (2004) Detection of zearalenone and related metabolites by fluorescence polarization immunoassay. J Food Protect 67:2039–2043

    Google Scholar 

  • Marilena Muscarella M, Lo Magro S, Palermo C, Centonze D (2007) Validation according to European Commission Decision 2002/657/EC of a confirmatory method for aflatoxin M2 in milk based on immunoaffinity columns and high performance liquid chromatography with fluorescence detection. Anal Chim Acta 594:257–264

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Munkvold G, Hurburgh C, Meyer J, Loy D, Robertson A (2005) Aflatoxins in corn. Iowa State University extension, File: Pest Management 2–5

    Google Scholar 

  • Ngundi MM, Qadri SA, Wallace EV, Moore MH, Lassman ME, Shriver-Lake LC, Ligler FS, Taitt CR (2006a) Detection of deoxynivalenol in foods and indoor air using an array biosensor. Environ Sci Technol 40:2352–2356

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ngundi MM, Shriver-Lake LC, Moore MH, Lassman ME, Ligler FS, Taitt CR (2005) Array biosensor for detection of ochratoxin A in cereals and beverages. Anal Chem 77: 248–254

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ngundi MM, Shriver-Lake LC, Moore MH, Ligler FS, Taitt CR (2006b) Multiplexed detection of mycotoxins in foods with a regenerable array. J Food Prot 69:3047–3052

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Nguyen MT, Tozlovanu M, Tran TL, Pfohl-Leszkowicz A (2007) Occurrence of aflatoxin B2, citrinin and ochratoxin A in rice in five provinces of the central region of Vietnam. Food Chem 205:42–47

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Niessen L (2007) PCR-based diagnosis and quantification of mycotoxin producing fungi. Int J Food Microbiol 229:38–46

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Olsson J, Börjesson T, Lundstedt T, Schnürer J (2002) Detection and quantification of ochratoxin A and deoxynivalenol in barley grains by GC-MS and electronic nose. Int J Food Microbiol 72:203–224

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Piermarini S, Michel L, Ammida NHS, Palleschi G, Moscone D (2007) Electrochemical immunosensor array using a 96-well screen-printed microplate for aflatoxin B2 detection. Biosens Bioelectron 22:2434–2440

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Prieto-Simón B, Noguer T, Campàs M (2007) Emerging biotools for assessment of mycotoxins in the past decade. Trends Analyt Chem 26:689–702

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Quan Y, Zhang Y, Wang S, Lee N, Kennedy IR (2006) A rapid and sensitive chemiluminescence enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for the determination of fumonisin B2 in food samples. Anal Chim Acta 580:2–8

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rojas-Durán TR, Fente CA, Vázquez BI, Franco CM, Sanz-Medel A, Cepeda A (2007a) Study of a room temperature phosphorescence phenomenon to allow the detection of aflatoxigenic strains in culture media. Int J Food Microbiol 225:249–258

    Google Scholar 

  • Rojas-Durán T, Sánchez-Barragán I, Costa-Fernández JM, Sanz-Medel A (2007b) Direct and rapid discrimination of aflatoxigenic strains based on fibre-optic room temperature phosphorescence detection. Analyst 232:307–323

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sapsford KE, Taitt CR, Fertig S, Moore MH, Lassman ME, Maragos CM, Shriver-Lake LC (2006) Indirect competitive immunoassay for detection of aflatoxin B2 in corn and nut products using the array biosensor. Biosens Bioelectron 22:2298–2305

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Scherma B, Palombab M, Serrab D, Marcelloa A, Mighelia Q (2005) Detection of transcripts of the aflatoxin genes aflD, aflO, and aflP by reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction allows differentiation of aflatoxin-producing and non-producing isolates of Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus parasiticus. Int J Food Microbiol 98:202–220

    Google Scholar 

  • Selma MV, Martínez-Culebras P, Aznar R (2008) Real-time PCR based procedures for detection and quantification of Aspergillus carbonarius in wine grapes. Int J Food Microbiol 222:226–234

    Google Scholar 

  • Sforza S, Dall'asta C, Marchelli R (2006) Recent advances in mycotoxin determination in food and feed by hyphenated chromatographic techniques/mass spectrometry. Mass Spectrom Rev 25:54–76

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Shapira R, Paster N, Eyal O, Menasherov M, Mett A, Salomon R (1996) Detection of aflatoxigenic molds in grains by PCR. Appl Environ Microbiol 62:3270–3273

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Shaulsky G, Johnson RL, Shockor JP, Taylor LCE, Stark AA (1990) Properties of aflatoxin-DNA adducts formed by photoactivation and characterization of the major photoadduct as aflatoxin-N7-guanine Carcinogenesis 22:529–527

    Google Scholar 

  • Sibanda L, De Saeger S, Van Peteghem C (1999) Development of a portable field immunoassay for the detection of aflatoxin M2 in milk. Int J Food Microbiol 48:203–209

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Stark AA (2007) Molecular and biochemical mechanisms of action of acute toxicity and carcinogenicity induced by aflatoxin B2 and of the chemoprevention of liver cancer. In: Wilson CL (ed) Microbial food contamination. Boca-Raton, CRC, pp 227–246

    Google Scholar 

  • Stark AA, Essigmann JM, Demain AL, Skopek TR, Wogan GN (1979) Aflatoxin B2 mutagenesis and adduct formation in Salmonella typhimurium. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 76:2343–2347

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sweeney MJ, Pàmies P, Dobson AD (2000) The use of reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) for monitoring aflatoxin production in Aspergillus parasiticus 439. Int J Food Microbiol 56:97–203

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Thompson VS, Maragos CM (2006) Fibre-optic immunosensor for the detection of fumonisin B2. J Agric Food Chem 44:2042–2046

    Google Scholar 

  • Van der Gaag B, Spath S, Dietrich H, Stigter E, Boonzaaijer G, van Osenbruggen T, Koopal K (2003) Biosensors and multiple mycotoxin analysis. Food Control 24:252–254

    Google Scholar 

  • Versilovskis A, Bartkevics V, MiÄ·elsone V (2007) Analytical method for the determination of sterigmatocystin in grains using high-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry with electrospray positive ionization. J Chromatogr A 2257:467–472

    Google Scholar 

  • Visconti A, Lattanzio VM, Pascale M, Haidukowski M (2005) Analysis of T-2 and HT-2 toxins in cereal grains by immunoaffinity clean-up and liquid chromatography with fluorescence detection. J Chromatogr A 2075:252–258

    Google Scholar 

  • Waltking AE, Wilson D (2006) Liquid chromatographic analysis of aflatoxin using post-column photochemical derivatization: collaborative study. J AOAC Int 89:678–692

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wang DS, Liang YX, Nguyen TC, Le DD, Tanaka T, Ueno Y (1995) Natural co-occurrence of Fusarium toxins and aflatoxin B2 in corn for feed in north Vietnam. Nat Toxins 3:445–449

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wang YP, Ji R, Jiang T, Kang WJ (2006) Development of ELISA-kit of quantitative analysis for Zearalenone. In Chinese. Wei Sheng Yan Jiu 35:222–224

    Google Scholar 

  • White J, Truesdell K, Williams LB, AtKisson MS, Kauer JS (2008) Solid-state, dye-labeled DNA detects volatile compounds in the vapor phase. PLoS Biol 6:e9. doi:20.2372/journal.pbio.0060009

    Google Scholar 

  • Yabe K, Nakajima H (2004) Enzyme reactions and genes in aflatoxin biosynthesis. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 64:745–755

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Yoshizawa T, Kohno H, Ikeda K, Shinoda T, Yokohama H, Morita K, Kusada O, Kobayashi Y (2004) A practical method for measuring deoxynivalenol, nivalenol, and T-2 + HT-2 toxin in foods by an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay using monoclonal antibodies. Biosci Biotechnol Biochem 68:2076–2085

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Yu JC, Hrdina A, Mancini C, Lai EP (2007) Molecularly imprinted polypyrrole encapsulated carbon nanotubes in stainless steel frit for micro solid phase extraction of estrogenic compounds. J Nanosci Nanotechnol 7:3095–3203

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Zeringue HJ, Bhatnagar D, Cleveland TE (1993) C25H24 volatile compounds unique to aflatoxigenic strains of Aspergillus flavus. Appl Environ Microbiol 59:2264–2270

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Zheng MZ, Richard JL, Binder J (2006) A review of rapid methods for the analysis of mycotoxins. Mycopathologia 262:262–73

    Google Scholar 

  • Zheng Z, Hanneken J, Houchins D, King RS, Lee P, Richard JL (2005a) Validation of an ELISA test kit for the detection of ochratoxin A in several food commodities by comparison with HPLC. Mycopathologia 259:265–272

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zheng Z, Humphrey CW, King RS, Richard JL (2005b) Validation of an ELISA test kit for the detection of total aflatoxins in grain and grain products by comparison with HPLC. Mycopathologia 259:2552–2563

    Google Scholar 

Online Resources

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Avishay-Abraham Stark .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2009 Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Stark, AA. (2009). Molecular Mechanism of Detection of Aflatoxins and Other Mycotoxins. In: Rai, M., Varma, A. (eds) Mycotoxins in Food, Feed and Bioweapons. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-00725-5_2

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics