Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Global HIV/AIDS Burden and Associated Diseases

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Cancer and AIDS

  • 303 Accesses

Abstract

The last three to four decades have witnessed the emergence of HIV/AIDS as a global health challenge, impacting virtually every aspect of human existence and revealing gaps in global health care. In spite of the fortuitous early recognition of the causative agent as a retrovirus, the most devastating of the emerging zoonotics threatening the global health system, but one that has proven to be controllable by a cocktail of anti-retroviral agents, a plethora of diseases are emerging, both as the complications of the viral infection itself, and those of its treatment. Although essentially a pandemic, the burden of the disease in terms of the disability-associated life years is not uniformly shared, with the greatest impact being in historically economically marginalized parts of the world. HIV/AIDS impacts virtually every aspect of human biology, ranging from rare infections, to neurologic, nephrologic, gastroenterologic, pulmonic, cardiovascular, metabolic, and rheumatic complications, as well as a wide spectrum of neoplastic disorders. Some of the latter are referred to as “AIDS–defining” and mimick the prevalent virus-associated cancers of sub-Saharan Africa, including Kaposi’s sarcoma and Burkitt lymphoma, and immunodeficiency-associated cancers, either heritable, such as Wiskott-Aldrich syndrome, or acquirable through organ transplantation. Others are “non-AIDS related”, involving pathogenic viruses notably associated with “AIDS-defining cancers,” such as Epstein-Barr virus (Arrieta et al., Sci Transl Med 7(307):307ra152–307ra152, 2015), but manifesting in new settings, such as the EBV-associated soft tissue sarcoma of children. HIV/AIDS is, indeed, producing new health scenarios that signal a need for paradigm changes in disease mechanisms and health care provision.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
eBook
USD 16.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 109.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 109.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  1. Arrieta M-C, Stiemsma LT, Dimitriu PA, Thorson L, Russell S, Yurist-Doutsch S, et al. Early infancy microbial and metabolic alterations affect risk of childhood asthma. Sci Transl Med. 2015;7(307):307ra152.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  2. Gottlieb MS, Schroff R, Schanker HM, Weisman JD, Fan PT, Wolf RA, et al. Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia and mucosal candidiasis in previously healthy homosexual men: evidence of a new acquired cellular immunodeficiency. N Engl J Med. 1981;305(24):1425–31.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  3. Siegal FP, Lopez C, Hammer GS, Brown AE, Kornfeld SJ, Gold J, et al. Severe acquired immunodeficiency in male homosexuals, manifested by chronic perianal ulcerative herpes simplex lesions. N Engl J Med. 1981;305(24):1439–44.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  4. Friedman-Kien AE, Laubenstein LJ, Rubinstein P, Buimovici-Klein E, Marmor M, Stahl R, et al. Disseminated Kaposi’s sarcoma in homosexual men. Ann Intern Med. 1982;96(6_part_1):693–700.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  5. Goedert J, Wallen W, Mann D, Strong D, Neuland C, Greene M, et al. Amyl nitrite may alter T lymphocytes in homosexual men. Lancet. 1982;319(8269):412–6.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  6. Poiesz BJ, Ruscetti FW, Gazdar AF, Bunn PA, Minna JD, Gallo RC. Detection and isolation of type C retrovirus particles from fresh and cultured lymphocytes of a patient with cutaneous T-cell lymphoma. Proc Natl Acad Sci. 1980;77(12):7415–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  7. Essex M, McLane MF, Lee T-H, Falk L, Howe C, Mullins JI, et al. Antibodies to cell membrane antigens associated with human T-cell leukemia virus in patients with AIDS. Science. 1983;220(4599):859–62.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  8. Gelmann EP, Popovic M, Blayney D, Masur H, Sidhu G, Stahl RE, et al. Proviral DNA of a retrovirus, human T-cell leukemia virus, in two patients with AIDS. Science. 1983;220(4599):862–5.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  9. Gallo RC, Sarin PS, Gelmann E, Robert-Guroff M, Richardson E, Kalyanaraman V, et al. Isolation of human T-cell leukemia virus in acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS). Science. 1983;220(4599):865–7.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  10. Barré-Sinoussi F, Chermann J-C, Rey F, Nugeyre MT, Chamaret S, Gruest J, et al. Isolation of a T-lymphotropic retrovirus from a patient at risk for acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS). Science. 1983;220(4599):868–71.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  11. Gallo RC, Salahuddin SZ, Popovic M, Shearer GM, Kaplan M, Haynes BF, et al. Frequent detection and isolation of cytopathic retroviruses (HTLV-III) from patients with AIDS and at risk for AIDS. Science. 1984;224(4648):500–3.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  12. Schupbach J, Popovic M, Gilden RV, Gonda MA, Sarngadharan M, Gallo RC. Serological analysis of a subgroup of human T-lymphotropic retroviruses (HTLV-III) associated with AIDS. Science. 1984;224(4648):503–5.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  13. Sarngadharan MG, Popovic M, Bruch L, Schupbach J, Gallo RC. Antibodies reactive with human T-lymphotropic retroviruses (HTLV-III) in the serum of patients with AIDS. Science. 1984;224(4648):506–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  14. Kanki P, Hopper J, Essex M. The Origins of HIV-1 and HTLV-4/HIV-2. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 1987;511(1):370–5.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  15. Davis L. AIDS: new viruses to fill in the blanks. Sci News. 1986;129(14):212.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  16. Coffin J, Haase A, Levy JA, Montagnier L, Oroszlan S, Teich N, et al. Human immunodeficiency viruses [letter]. Science. 1986;232(4751):697.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  17. Baltimore D (2003) RNA-dependent DNA polymerase in virions of RNA tumour viruses. A century of Nature: twenty-one discoveries that changed science and the world:173

    Google Scholar 

  18. Temin HM, Baltimore D. RNA-directed DNA synthesis and RNA tumor viruses. Adv Virus Res. 1972;17:129–86.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  19. Temin HM, Mizutani S. RNA-dependent DNA polymerase in virions of Rous sarcoma virus. Nature. 1970;226:1211–3.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  20. Vartanian J-P, Wain-Hobson S. The molecular biology of HIV-1. In: Essex M, Mboup S, Kanki PJ, Kalengayi MR, editors. AIDS in Africa. New York: Raven Press Ltd.; 1994. p. 21–46.

    Google Scholar 

  21. Rasheed S. Retroviruses and oncogenes. The retroviridae. New York: Springer; 1995. p. 293–408.

    Google Scholar 

  22. Varmus HE. Retroviruses and oncogenes I. Biosci Rep. 1990;10(5):413–30.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  23. Etienne L, Hahn BH, Sharp PM, Matsen FA, Emerman M. Gene loss and adaptation to hominids underlie the ancient origin of HIV-1. Cell Host Microbe. 2013;14(1):85–92.

    Article  CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  24. Essex M, Mboup S. Introduction: the etiology of AIDS. In: Essex M, Mboup S, Kanki PJ, Marlink RG, Tlou SD, Holme M, editors. AIDS in Africa. Boston: Springer; 2002.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  25. Group TAS. A trial of early antiretrovirals and isoniazid preventive therapy in Africa. N Engl J Med. 2015;2015(373):808–22.

    Google Scholar 

  26. Bebenek K, Abbotts J, Roberts JD, Wilson SH, Kunkel TA. Specificity and mechanism of error-prone replication by human immunodeficiency virus-1 reverse transcriptase. J Biol Chem. 1989;264(28):16948–56.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  27. Boyer JC, Bebenek K, Kunkel TA. Unequal human immunodeficiency virus type 1 reverse transcriptase error rates with RNA and DNA templates. Proc Natl Acad Sci. 1992;89(15):6919–23.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  28. Folks TM, Hart CE. The lifecycle of human immunodeficiency virus type 1. In: DeVita VT, Hellman S, Rosenberg SA, Curran J, Essex M, Fauci AS, editors. AIDS etiology, diagnosis, treatment and prevention. Philadelpha: Lippincott Co.; 1997. p. 29–43.

    Google Scholar 

  29. Robertson DL, Sharp PM, McCutchan FE, Hahn BH. Recombination in HIV-1. Nature. 1995;374(6518):124.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  30. Kanki P, McLane M, King N Jr, Ketvin N, Hunt R, Sehgal P, et al. Serologic identification and characterization of a macaque T-lymphotropic retrovirus closely related to HTLV-III. Science. 1985;228:1199–202.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  31. Daniel M, Letvin N, King N, Kannagi M, Sehgal P, Hung R. Isolation of T-cell tropic HTLV-III-like retrovirus from macaques. Science. 1985;228:1201–5.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  32. Kanki PJ, Kurth R, Becker W, Dreesman G, McLane M, Essex M. Antibodies to simian T-lymphotropic retrovirus type III in African green monkeys and recognition of STLV-III viral proteins by AIDS and related sera. Lancet. 1985;325(8441):1330–2.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  33. Tsujimoto H, Hasegawa A, Maki N, Fukasawa M, Miura T, Speidel S, et al. Sequence of a novel simian immunodeficiency virus from a wild-caught African mandrill. Nature. 1989;341(6242):539–41.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  34. Müller M, Saksena N, Nerrienet E, Chappey C, Herve V, Durand J, et al. Simian immunodeficiency viruses from central and western Africa: evidence for a new species-specific lentivirus in tantalus monkeys. J Virol. 1993;67(3):1227–35.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  35. Peeters M, Janssens W, Fransen K, Brandful J, Heyndrickx L, Koffi K, et al. Isolation of simian immunodeficiency viruses from two sooty mangabeys in Cote d’Ivoire: virological and genetic characterization and relationship to other HIV type 2 and SIVsm/mac strains. AIDS Res Hum Retrovir. 1994;10(10):1289–94.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  36. Barin F, Denis F, Allan J, M'Boup S, Kanki P, Lee T, et al. Serological evidence for virus related to simian T-lymphotropic retrovirus III in residents of West Africa. Lancet. 1985;326(8469–8470):1387–9.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  37. Kanki PJ, Barin F, M'boup S, Allan JS, Romet-Lemonne JL, Marlink R, et al. New human T-lymphotropic retrovirus related to simian T-lymphotropic virus type III (STLV-IIIAGM). Science. 1986;232:238–44.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  38. Kanki PJ, Travers KU, Marlink R, Essex M, MBoup S, Gueye-NDiaye A, et al. Slower heterosexual spread of HIV-2 than HIV-1. Lancet. 1994;343(8903):943–6.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  39. Andreasson P, Dias F, Naucler A, Andersson S, Biberfeld G. A prospective study of vertical transmission of HIV-2 in Bissau Guinea-Bissau. AIDS. 1993;7(7):989–93.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  40. Adjorlolo-Johnson G, De Cock KM, Ekpini E, Vetter KM, Sibailly T, Brattegaard K, et al. Prospective comparison of mother-to-child transmission of HIV-1 and HIV-2 in Abidjan, Ivory coast. JAMA. 1994;272(6):462–6.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  41. Kanki P. Epidemiology and natural history of human immunodeficiency virus type 2. In: DeVita VT, Hellman S, Rosenberg SA, Curran J, Essex M, Fauci AS, editors. AIDS etiology, diagnosis, treatment, and prevention. Philadelphia: Lippincott Co.; 1997. p. 127–35.

    Google Scholar 

  42. Gürtler LG, Hauser PH, Eberle J, Von Brunn A, Knapp S, Zekeng L, et al. A new subtype of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (MVP-5180) from Cameroon. J Virol. 1994;68(3):1581–5.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  43. Nkengasong J, Heyndrickx L, Fransen K, Ndumbe P, Delaporte E, Peeters M, et al. Further evidence of the presence of genetically aberrant HIV-1 strains in Cameroon and Gabon. AIDS. 1994;8(7):1012.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  44. Sullivan PS, Do AN, Ellenberger D, Pau C-P, Paul S, Robbins K, et al. Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) subtype surveillance of African-born persons at risk for group O and group N HIV infections in the United States. J Infect Dis. 2000;181(2):463–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  45. Huet T, Cheynier R, Meyerhans A, Roelants G, Wain-Hobson S. Genetic organization of a chimpanzee lentivirus related to HIV-1. Nature. 1990;345(6273):356–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  46. Shioda T, Levy JA, Cheng-Mayer C. Small amino acid changes in the V3 hypervariable region of gp120 can affect the T-cell-line and macrophage tropism of human immunodeficiency virus type 1. Proc Natl Acad Sci. 1992;89(20):9434–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  47. Feng Y, Broder CC, Kennedy PE, Berger EA. HIV-1 entry cofactor: functional cDNA cloning of a seven-transmembrane, G protein–coupled receptor. J Immunol (Baltimore, Md: 1950). 2011;186(11):6076.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  48. Alkhatib G, Combadiere C, Broder CC, Feng Y, Kennedy PE, Murphy PM, et al. CC CKR5: a RANTES, MIP-1α, MIP-1β receptor as a fusion cofactor for macrophage-tropic HIV-1. Science. 1996:1955–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  49. Essex M. The etiology of AIDS. In: Essex M, Mboup S, Kanki PJ, Kalengayi MR, editors. AIDS In Africa. New York: Raven Press; 1994. p. 1–20.

    Google Scholar 

  50. Tersmette M, De Goede R, Lange J, De Wolf F, Eeftink-Schattenkerk J, Schellekens PTA, et al. Association between biological properties of human immunodeficiency virus variants and risk for AIDS and AIDS mortality. Lancet. 1989;333(8645):983–5.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  51. Tscherning C, Alaeus A, Fredriksson R, Björndal Å, Deng H, Littman DR, et al. Differences in chemokine coreceptor usage between genetic subtypes of HIV-1. Virology. 1998;241(2):181–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  52. Peeters M, Vincent R, Perret J-L, Lasky M, Patrel D, Liegeois F, et al. Evidence for differences in MT2 cell tropism according to genetic subtypes of HIV-1: syncytium-inducing variants seem rare among subtype C HIV-1 viruses. JAIDS J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 1999;20(2):115–21.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  53. Ping L-H, Nelson JA, Hoffman IF, Schock J, Lamers SL, Goodman M, et al. Characterization of V3 sequence heterogeneity in subtype C human immunodeficiency virus type 1 isolates from Malawi: underrepresentation of X4 variants. J Virol. 1999;73(8):6271–81.

    CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  54. Kanki PJ, Hamel DJ, Sankalé J-L, Hsieh C-c, Thior I, Barin F, et al. Human immunodeficiency virus type 1 subtypes differ in disease progression. J Infect Dis. 1999;179(1):68–73.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  55. Renjifo B, Fawzi W, Mwakagile D, Hunter D, Msamanga G, Spiegelman D, et al. Differences in perinatal transmission among human immunodeficiency virus type 1 genotypes. J Hum Virol. 2001;4(1):16–25.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  56. Williams C. AIDS and cancer in Nigerians. Lancet. 1986;327(8471):36–7.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  57. Serwadda D, Sewankambo N, Carswell J, Bayley A, Tedder R, Weiss R, et al. Slim disease: a new disease in Uganda and its association with HTLV-III infection. Lancet. 1985;326(8460):849–52.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  58. Bayley A. Aggressive Kaposi’s sarcoma in Zambia, 1983. Lancet. 1984;323(8390):1318–20.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  59. Bayley A, Cheingsong-Popov R, Dalgleish A, Downing R, Tedder R, Weiss R. HTLV-III serology distinguishes atypical and endemic Kaposi’s sarcoma in Africa. Lancet. 1985;325(8425):359–61.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  60. Okware SI. Epidemic of AIDS in Uganda. In: Giraldo G, Beth-Giraldo E, Clumeck N, Gharbi M-R, Kyalwazi SK, de The G, editors. AIDS and Associated cancers in Africa. Basel: Karger; 1988. p. 25–9.

    Google Scholar 

  61. Lozano R, Naghavi M, Foreman K, Lim S, Shibuya K, Aboyans V, et al. Global and regional mortality from 235 causes of death for 20 age groups in 1990 and 2010: a systematic analysis for the Global burden of disease study 2010. Lancet. 2013;380(9859):2095–128.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  62. Williams CKO(2013) HIV/AIDS in Africa: could the story have been different in Nigeria? Proceedings of the Symposium on “30 years of HIV Science: Imagine The Future”, abstract # 122; May 21–23, 2013.; Institut Pasteur, Paris, France (http://www.30yearshiv.org) p. Abstract# 122

  63. Williams CKO (2009) HIV/AIDS pandemic in Africa: chronicle of a missed opportunity. Annual meeting of the American Society of Clinical Oncology. p. Abstract: e22235

    Google Scholar 

  64. Olaleye O, Bernstein L, Ekweozor C, Sheng Z, Omilabu S, Li X-V, et al. Prevalence of human immunodeficiency virus types 1 and 2 infections in Nigeria. J Infect Dis. 1993;167(3):710–4.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  65. Anonymous. US Bureau of Census, HIV/AIDS surveillance database. Washington: Government of the United States; 2000.

    Google Scholar 

  66. Olumide Y, Dada A, Sogbanmu I, Aruna G. Seroprevalence study of HIV-I, HIV-II and HTLV-I among patients at the dermato-venereology clinic of the Lagos University Teaching Hospital. Int J Dermatol. 1997;36(10):741–4.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  67. Esu-Williams E, Mulanga-Kabeya C, Takena H, Zwandor A, Aminu K, Adamu I, et al. Seroprevalence of HIV-1, HIV-2, and HIV-1 group O in Nigeria: evidence for a growing increase of HIV infection. JAIDS J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 1997;16(3):204–10.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  68. M’Boup S. Human immunodeficiency viruses in West African regions. In: Giraldo G, Beth-Giraldo E, Clumeck N, Gharbi M-R, Kyalwazi SK, de The G, editors. AIDS and associated cancers in Africa. Basel: Karger; 1988. p. 100–5.

    Google Scholar 

  69. Mohammed I, Nasidi A, Chikwem J, Williams E, Harry T, Okafor G, et al. HIV infection in Nigeria [letter]. AIDS. 1988;2(1):61–2.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  70. Sepúlveda J, Murray C. The state of global health in 2014. Science. 2014;345(6202):1275–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  71. Ortblad KF, Lozano R, Murray CJ. The burden of HIV: insights from the global burden of disease study 2010. AIDS. 2013;27(13):2003–17.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  72. HIV/AIDS JUNPo (2012) Global report: UNAIDS report on the global AIDS epidemic: UNAIDS; 2012

    Google Scholar 

  73. Stringer JS, Zulu I, Levy J, Stringer EM, Mwango A, Chi BH, et al. Rapid scale-up of antiretroviral therapy at primary care sites in Zambia: feasibility and early outcomes. JAMA. 2006;296(7):782–93.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  74. Mermin J, Were W, Ekwaru JP, Moore D, Downing R, Behumbiize P, et al. Mortality in HIV-infected Ugandan adults receiving antiretroviral treatment and survival of their HIV-uninfected children: a prospective cohort study. Lancet. 2008;371(9614):752–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  75. Knight L (2008) HIV/AIDS JUNPo. UNAIDS: the first 10 years, 1996–2006: joint United Nations programme on HIV/AIDS

    Google Scholar 

  76. Lu C, Michaud CM, Khan K, Murray CJ. Absorptive capacity and disbursements by the global fund to fight AIDS, Tuberculosis and Malaria: analysis of grant implementation. Lancet. 2006;368(9534):483–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  77. Oomman N, Bernstein M, Rosenzweig S (2007) Following the funding for HIV/AIDS: a comparative analysis of the funding practices of PEPFAR the global fund and World Bank MAP in Mozambique Uganda and Zambia

    Google Scholar 

  78. Merson MH. The HIV–AIDS pandemic at 25–the global response. N Engl J Med. 2006;354(23):2414–7.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  79. HIV/AIDS JUNPo (2012) Together we will end AIDS: joint United Nations programme on HIV/AIDS (UNAIDS)

    Google Scholar 

  80. HIV/AIDS JUNPo (2010) Getting to zero: 2011–2015 strategy: UNAIDS

    Google Scholar 

  81. HIV/AIDS JUNPo, HIV/Aids JUNPo. 90–90–90: an ambitious treatment target to help end the AIDS epidemic. Geneva: UNAIDS; 2014.

    Google Scholar 

  82. Murray C, Hanlon M, Lavado R, Haakenstad A, Graves C, Brooks B, et al. Financing global health 2012: the end of the Golden Age. Seattle: Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation; 2012.

    Google Scholar 

  83. Enserink M. After the windfall. Science. 2014;345(6202):1258–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  84. Dieleman JL, Graves CM, Templin T, Johnson E, Baral R, Leach-Kemon K, et al. Global health development assistance remained steady in 2013 but did not align with recipients’ disease burden. Health Aff. 2014;33(5):878–86.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  85. Piot P, Greener R, Russell S. Squaring the circle: AIDS, poverty, and human development. PLoS Med. 2007;4(10):1571–5.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  86. Lu C, Schneider MT, Gubbins P, Leach-Kemon K, Jamison D, Murray CJ. Public financing of health in developing countries: a cross-national systematic analysis. Lancet. 2010;375(9723):1375–87.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  87. UNAIDS. Global Report: UNAIDS report on the global AIDS epidemic 2013. Geneva: UNAIDS; 2013.

    Google Scholar 

  88. Organization WH (2013) Global update on HIV treatment 2013: results, impact and opportunities

    Google Scholar 

  89. Kaiser J. Cancer centers pool tumor genome data: DNA registry could lead to new treatments. Science. 2015;350(6262):730.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  90. Nathanson N. HIV/AIDS epidemic: the whole truth. Science. 2016;351(6269):133.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  91. CDC (2012) CDC: “CDC Fact Sheet: New HIV infections in the United States” [Available from: www.cdc.gov/nchhstp/newsroom/docs/2012/hiv-infections-2007–2010.pdf

  92. Cohen MS, Chen YQ, McCauley M, Gamble T, Hosseinipour MC, Kumarasamy N, et al. Prevention of HIV-1 infection with early antiretroviral therapy. N Engl J Med. 2011;365(6):493–505.

    Article  CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  93. Ratmann O, van Sighem A, Bezemer D, Gavryushkina A, Jurriaans S, Wensing A, et al. Sources of HIV infection among men having sex with men and implications for prevention. Sci Transl Med. 2016, 8(320):320ra2–2.

    Article  PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  94. Muchiri S. Financing and resource allocation for HIV in Kenya, 8th IAS Conference on HIV Pathogenesis, Treatment and Prevention. Vancouver: International AIDS Society; 2015.

    Google Scholar 

  95. McLean R. Health financing in the Caribbean, 8th IAS Conference on HIV Pathogenesis, Treatment and Prevention. Vancouver: IAS; 2015.

    Google Scholar 

  96. Evans T, Kieny M-P. Tracking universal health coverage – first global monitoring report. France: World Health Organization and The World Bank; 2015.

    Google Scholar 

  97. Klag MJ. Global health research: what can be learned from the HIV model? 8th IAS Conference on HIV Pathogenesis, Treatment and Prevention. Vancouver: IAS; 2015.

    Google Scholar 

  98. Fried LP, Bentley ME, Buekens P, Burke DS, Frenk JJ, Klag MJ, et al. Global health is public health. Lancet. 2010;375(9714):535–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  99. Chamie G, Clark TD, Kabami J, Kadede K, Ssemmondo E, Steinfeld R, et al. A hybrid mobile approach for population-wide HIV testing in rural east Africa: an observational study. The Lancet HIV. 2016;

    Google Scholar 

  100. Jain V, Byonanebye DM, Liegler T, Kwarisiima D, Chamie G, Kabami J, et al. Changes in population HIV RNA levels in Mbarara, Uganda during scale-up of HIV antiretroviral therapy access. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2014;65(3):327.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  101. Kotwani P, Balzer L, Kwarisiima D, Clark TD, Kabami J, Byonanebye D, et al. Evaluating linkage to care for hypertension after community-based screening in rural Uganda. Trop Med Int Health. 2014;19(4):459–68.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  102. Jain V, Byonanebye DM, Amanyire G, Kwarisiima D, Black D, Kabami J, et al. Successful antiretroviral therapy delivery and retention in care among asymptomatic individuals with high CD4+ T-cell counts above 350 cells/μl in rural Uganda. AIDS. 2014;28(15):2241–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  103. Horton R, Karim SA. AIDS for global health: how can the HIV response inform advances in global health. 8th IAS conference on HIV pathogenesis, treatment and prevention; 19–22 July 2015; Vancouver, BC, Canada

    Google Scholar 

  104. Beyrer C, Birx DL, Bekker L-G, Barré-Sinoussi F, Cahn P, Dybul MR, et al. The Vancouver consensus: antiretroviral medicines, medical evidence, and political will. Lancet. 2015;386(9993):505–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  105. Organization WH. Global update on the health sector response to HIV, 2014. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2014.

    Google Scholar 

  106. Kazatchkine M. The epidemic of HIV in Russia, Eastern Europe and Central Asia, 8th IAS Conference on HIV Pathogenesis, Treatment and Prevention; 19–22 July 2015. Vancouver: International AIDS Society (IAS).

    Google Scholar 

  107. Atashili J, Poole C, Ndumbe PM, Adimora AA, Smith JS. Bacterial vaginosis and HIV acquisition: a meta-analysis of published studies. AIDS (London, England). 2008;22(12):1493.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  108. Chirenda J, Murugasampillay S. Malaria and HIV co-infection: available evidence, gaps and possible interventions. Cent Afr J Med. 2002;49(5–6):66–71.

    Google Scholar 

  109. Pienaar ED, Young T, Holmes H. Interventions for the prevention and management of oropharyngeal candidiasis associated with HIV infection in adults and children. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2006;3(3):CD003940.

    Google Scholar 

  110. Ramos-Gomez FJ, Flaitz C, Catapano P, Murray P, Milnes AR, Dorenbaum A. Classification, diagnostic criteria, and treatment recommendations for orofacial manifestations in HIV-infected pediatric patients. Collaborative workgroup on oral manifestations of pediatric HIV infection. J Clin Pediatr Dent. 1998;23(2):85–96.

    Google Scholar 

  111. Freeman EE, Weiss HA, Glynn JR, Cross PL, Whitworth JA, Hayes RJ. Herpes simplex virus 2 infection increases HIV acquisition in men and women: systematic review and meta-analysis of longitudinal studies. AIDS. 2006;20(1):73–83.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  112. Tobian AA, Quinn TC. Herpes simplex virus type 2 and syphilis infections with HIV: an evolving synergy in transmission and prevention. Curr Opin HIV AIDS. 2009;4(4):294.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  113. Watson-Jones D, Weiss HA, Rusizoka M, Changalucha J, Baisley K, Mugeye K, et al. Effect of herpes simplex suppression on incidence of HIV among women in Tanzania. N Engl J Med. 2008;358(15):1560–71.

    Article  CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  114. Tobian AA, Serwadda D, Quinn TC, Kigozi G, Gravitt PE, Laeyendecker O, et al. Male circumcision for the prevention of HSV-2 and HPV infections and syphilis. N Engl J Med. 2009;360(13):1298–309.

    Article  CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  115. Auvert B, Buve A, Lagarde E, Kahindo M, Chege J, Rutenberg N, et al. Male circumcision and HIV infection in four cities in sub-Saharan Africa. AIDS. 2001;15:S31–40.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  116. Auvert B, Taljaard D, Lagarde E, Sobngwi-Tambekou J, Sitta R, Puren A. Randomized, controlled intervention trial of male circumcision for reduction of HIV infection risk: the ANRS 1265 Trial. PLoS Med. 2005;2(11):e298.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  117. CDC. Diffuse, undifferentiated non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma among homosexual males: United States. MMWR. 1982;31:277–9.

    Google Scholar 

  118. Penn I. Depressed immunity and the development of cancer. Clin Exp Immunol. 1981;46(3):459.

    CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  119. Penn I. Secondary neoplasms as a consequence of transplantation and cancer therapy. Cancer Detect Prev. 1987;12(1–6):39–57.

    Google Scholar 

  120. Penn I. Tumors arising in organ transplant recipients. Adv Cancer Res. 1978;28:31.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  121. Grulich AE, van Leeuwen MT, Falster MO, Vajdic CM. Incidence of cancers in people with HIV/AIDS compared with immunosuppressed transplant recipients: a meta-analysis. Lancet. 2007;370(9581):59–67.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  122. Palefsky JM, Holly EA. Immunosuppression and co-infection with HIV. J Natl Cancer Inst Monogr. 2002;31:41–6.

    Google Scholar 

  123. Clifford GM, Goncalves MAG, Franceschi S. HPV, group Hs. Human papillomavirus types among women infected with HIV: a meta-analysis. AIDS. 2006;20(18):2337–44.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  124. Williams CKO, Kashala LO, Giraldo G, de The GB, Beth-Giraldo E. AIDS-associated cancers. In: Essex M, M'Boup S, Kanki PJ, Kalengayi MR, editors. AIDS in Africa. New York: Raven Press; 1994. p. 325–71.

    Google Scholar 

  125. Hua L, Andersen JW, Daar ES, Glesby MJ, Hollabaugh K, Tierney C. HCV/HIV Co-infection and responses to Initial antiretroviral treatment. AIDS (London, England). 2013;27(17):2725.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  126. Mcdonald M, Hamilton J, Durack D. Hepatitis B surface antigen could harbour the infective agent of AIDS. Lancet. 1983;322(8355):882–4.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  127. Bodsworth NJ, Cooper DA, Donovan B. The influence of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 infection on the development of the hepatitis B virus carrier state. J Infect Dis. 1991;163(5):1138–40.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  128. Thein H-H, Yi Q, Dore GJ, Krahn MD. Natural history of hepatitis C virus infection in HIV-infected individuals and the impact of HIV in the era of highly active antiretroviral therapy: a meta-analysis. AIDS. 2008;22(15):1979–91.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  129. Karim SSA, Churchyard GJ, Karim QA, Lawn SD. HIV infection and tuberculosis in South Africa: an urgent need to escalate the public health response. The Lancet. 2009;374(9693):921–33.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  130. Lawn SD, Churchyard G. Epidemiology of HIV-associated tuberculosis running head: epidemiology of TB/HIV. Curr Opin HIV AIDS. 2009;4(4):325.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  131. Lawn SD, Wood R, De Cock KM, Kranzer K, Lewis JJ, Churchyard GJ. Antiretrovirals and isoniazid preventive therapy in the prevention of HIV-associated tuberculosis in settings with limited health-care resources. Lancet Infect Dis. 2010;10(7):489–98.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  132. Lawn S, Harries A, Williams B, Chaisson R, Losina E, De Cock K, et al. Antiretroviral therapy and the control of HIV-associated tuberculosis. Will ART do it? Int J Tuberc Lung Dis: Off J Int Union Tuberc Lung Dis. 2011;15(5):571.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  133. AIDS ATiL-ICCotIeDtE, Collaboration AC. Tuberculosis after initiation of antiretroviral therapy in low-income and high-income countries. Clin Infect Dis. 2007;45(11):1518–21.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  134. Mesfin YM, Hailemariam D, Biadglign S, Kibret KT. Association between HIV/AIDS and multi-drug resistance tuberculosis: a systematic review and meta-analysis. PLoS One. 2014;9(1):e82235.

    Article  PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  135. Chaisson RE, Martinson NA. Tuberculosis in Africa–combating an HIV-driven crisis. N Engl J Med. 2008;358(11):1089–92.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  136. Suthar AB, Lawn SD, Del Amo J, Getahun H, Dye C, Sculier D, et al. Antiretroviral therapy for prevention of tuberculosis in adults with HIV: a systematic review and meta-analysis. PLoS Med. 2012;9(7):e1001270.

    Article  CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  137. Reveille JD, Williams FM. Rheumatologic complications of HIV infection. Best Pract Res Clin Rheumatol. 2006;20(6):1159–79.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  138. Assuiti LFC, de Melo Lanzoni GM, dos Santos FC, Erdmann AL, Meirelles BHS. Hearing loss in people with HIV/AIDS and associated factors: an integrative review. Braz J Otorhinolaryngol. 2013;79(2):248–55.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  139. Heinze B, Swanepoel DW, Hofmeyr LM. Systematic review of vestibular disorders related to human immunodeficiency virus and acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. J Laryngol Otol. 2011;125(09):881–90.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  140. Nicholas PK, Corless IB, Evans LA. Peripheral neuropathy in HIV: an analysis of evidence-based approaches. J Assoc Nurses AIDS Care. 2014;25(4):318–29.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  141. Barber T, Bradshaw D, Hughes D, Leonidou L, Margetts A, Ratcliffe D, et al. Screening for HIV-related neurocognitive impairment in clinical practice: challenges and opportunities. AIDS Care. 2014;26(2):160–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  142. Carroll B, Anfinson T, Kennedy J, Yendrek R, Boutros M, Bilon A. Catatonic disorder due to general medical conditions. J Neuropsychiatr Clin Neurosci. 1993;6(2):122–33.

    Google Scholar 

  143. Kamminga J, Cysique LA, Lu G, Batchelor J, Brew BJ. Validity of cognitive screens for HIV-associated neurocognitive disorder: a systematic review and an informed screen selection guide. Curr HIV/AIDS Rep. 2013;10(4):342–55.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  144. Nath A. Human immunodeficiency virus–associated neurocognitive disorder. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 2010;1187(1):122–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  145. Parker R, Stein DJ, Jelsma J. Pain in people living with HIV/AIDS: a systematic review. J Int AIDS Soc. 2014;17(1):18719.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  146. Simpson DM, Tagliati M. Neurologic manifestations of HIV infection. Ann Intern Med. 1994;121(10):769–85.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  147. Beaufils H, Jouanneau C, Katlama C, Sazdovitch V, Hauw J. HIV-associated IgA nephropathy–a post-mortem study. Nephrol Dial Transplant. 1995;10(1):35–8.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  148. Wyatt CM, Malvestutto C, Coca SG, Klotman PE, Parikh CR. The impact of hepatitis C virus co-infection on HIV-related kidney disease: a systematic review and meta-analysis. AIDS (London, England). 2008;22(14):1799.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  149. Omoregie R, Omokaro E, Palmer O, Ogefere H, Egbeobauwaye A, Adegue J, et al. Prevalence of anaemia among HIV-infected patients in Benin City, Nigeria. Tanzan J Health Res. 2009;11(1):1–4.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  150. Mocroft A, Kirk O, Barton SE, Dietrich M, Proenca R, Colebunders R, et al. Anaemia is an independent predictive marker for clinical prognosis in HIV-infected patients from across Europe. AIDS. 1999;13(8):943–50.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  151. Moyle G. Anaemia in persons with HIV infection: prognostic marker and contributor to morbidity. AIDS Rev. 2001;4(1):13–20.

    Google Scholar 

  152. Belperio PS, Rhew DC. Prevalence and outcomes of anemia in individuals with human immunodeficiency virus: a systematic review of the literature. Am J Med. 2004;116(7):27–43.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  153. Marti-Carvajal AJ, Solà I. Treatment for anemia in people with AIDS. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2007;1

    Google Scholar 

  154. Biswal S. Crofelemer: in HIV associated diarrhea and secretory diarrhea-a patent perspective. Recent Pat Antiinfect Drug Discov. 2014;9(2):136–43.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  155. Wilcox CM. Esophageal disease in the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome: etiology, diagnosis, and management. Am J Med. 1992;92(4):412–21.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  156. Melroe NH, Kopaczewski J, Henry K, Huebsch J. Lipid abnormalities associated with protease inhibitors. J Assoc Nurses AIDS Care. 1999;10(2):22–30.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  157. Carr A. HIV lipodystrophy: risk factors, pathogenesis, diagnosis and management. AIDS. 2003;17:S141–S8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  158. Finkelstein JL, Gala P, Rochford R, Glesby MJ, Mehta S. HIV/AIDS and lipodystrophy: implications for clinical management in resource-limited settings. J Int AIDS Soc. 2015;18(1):19033.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  159. Jones J, Hanson D, Dworkin M, Alderton D, Fleming P, Kaplan J, et al. Surveillance for AIDS-defining opportunistic illnesses, 1992–1997. MMWR CDC Surveill Summ: Morb Mortal Wkly Rep CDC Surveill Summa/Centers Dis Control. 1999;48(2):1–22.

    Google Scholar 

  160. Ruiz Garcia V, López-Briz E, Carbonell Sanchis R, Gonzalvez Perales JL, Bort-Marti S. Megestrol acetate for treatment of anorexia-cachexia syndrome. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2013;3:CD004310.

    Google Scholar 

  161. Mangili A, Murman D, Zampini A, Wanke C, Mayer KH. Nutrition and HIV infection: review of weight loss and wasting in the era of highly active antiretroviral therapy from the nutrition for healthy living cohort. Clin Infect Dis. 2006;42(6):836–42.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  162. Unachukwu C, Uchenna D, Young E. Endocrine and metabolic disorders associated with human immune deficiency virus infection. West Afr J Med. 2009;28(1):3–9.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  163. Wang T, Yi R, Green LA, Chelvanambi S, Seimetz M, Clauss M. Increased cardiovascular disease risk in the HIV-positive population on ART: potential role of HIV-Nef and Tat. Cardiovasc Pathol. 2015;24(5):279–82.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  164. Mehta NJ, Khan IA. HIV-associated coronary artery disease. Angiology. 2003;54(3):269–75.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  165. Pellicelli AM, Barbaro G, Palmieri F, Girardi E, D'Ambrosio C, Rianda A, et al. Primary pulmonary hypertension in HIV patients: a systematic review. Angiology. 2001;52(1):31–41.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  166. Control CD. HIV/AIDS surveillance report, vol. 8., No. 1. Atlanta: US Department of Health and Human Services. Public Health Service; 1996.

    Google Scholar 

  167. Goedert JJ, Coté TR, Virgo P, Scoppa SM, Kingma DW, Gail MH, et al. Spectrum of AIDS-associated malignant disorders. Lancet. 1998;351(9119):1833–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  168. IARC (1996) IARC working group on the evaluation of carcinogenic risks to humans International Agency for Research on Cancer. Human immunodeficiency viruses and human T-cell lymphotropic viruses: World Health Organization

    Google Scholar 

  169. McClain KL, Leach CT, Jenson HB, Joshi VV, Pollock BH, Parmley RT, et al. Association of Epstein–Barr virus with leiomyosarcomas in young people with AIDS. N Engl J Med. 1995;332(1):12–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  170. Moore PS, Gao S-J, Dominguez G, Cesarman E, Lungu O, Knowles DM, et al. Primary characterization of a herpesvirus agent associated with Kaposi’s sarcomae. J Virol. 1996;70(1):549–58.

    CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  171. Gao S-J, Kingsley L, Hoover DR, Spira TJ, Rinaldo CR, Saah A, et al. Seroconversion to antibodies against Kaposi’s sarcoma–associated herpesvirus–related latent nuclear antigens before the development of Kaposi’s sarcoma. N Engl J Med. 1996;335(4):233–41.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  172. IARC (1997) IARC working group on the evaluation of carcinogenic risks to humans International Agency for Research on Cancer: Epstein-Barr virus and Kaposi’s sarcoma, herpesvirus/human herpesvirus. IARC monographs on the evaluation of carcinogenic risks to humans. ;70

    Google Scholar 

  173. Silverberg MJ, Abrams DI. AIDS-defining and non-AIDS-defining malignancies: cancer occurrence in the antiretroviral therapy era. Curr Opin Oncol. 2007;19(5):446–51.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  174. Silberstein J, Downs T, Lakin C, Kane C. HIV and prostate cancer: a systematic review of the literature. Prostate Cancer Prostatic Dis. 2008;12(1):6–12.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  175. Gallien S, Zuber B, Polivka M, Lagrange-Xelot M, Thiebault J-B, Bertheau P, et al. Multifocal Epstein-Barr virus-associated smooth muscle tumor in adults with AIDS: case report and review of the literature. Oncology. 2008;74(3-4):167–76.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  176. Shiels MS, Cole SR, Kirk GD, Poole C. A meta-analysis of the incidence of non-AIDS cancers in HIV-infected individuals. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2009;52(5):611.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  177. Friedman-Kien A, Laubenstein L, Marmor M, Hymes K, Green J, Ragaz A, et al. Kaposis sarcoma and pneumocystis pneumonia among homosexual men–New York City and California. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 1981;30(25):305–8.

    Google Scholar 

  178. Spector BD, Perry GS, Kersey JH. Genetically determined immunodeficiency diseases (GDID) and malignancy: report from the immunodeficiency-cancer registry. Clin Immunol Immunopathol. 1978;11(1):12–29.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  179. Frizzera G, Rosai J, Dehner LP, Spector BD, Kersey JH. Lymphoreticular disorders in primary immunodeficiencies: new findings based on an up-to-date histologic classification of 35 cases. Cancer. 1980;46(4):692–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  180. Kinlen L, Webster A, Bird A, Haile R, Peto J, Soothill J, et al. Prospective study of cancer in patients with hypogammaglobulinaemia. Lancet. 1985;325(8423):263–6.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  181. Morrell D, Cromartie E, Swift M. Mortality and cancer incidence in 263 patients with ataxia-telangiectasia. J Natl Cancer Inst. 1986;77(1):89–92.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  182. Birkeland SA. Malignant tumors in renal transplant patients the scandia transplant material. Cancer. 1983;51(9):1571–5.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  183. Kobayashi N. Malignant neoplasms in registered cases of primary immunodeficiency syndrome. Jpn J Clin Oncol. 1985;15:307–12.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  184. Penn I. Malignancies associated with immunosuppressive or cytotoxic therapy. Surgery. 1978;83(5):492–502.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  185. Burnet F (1970) The concept of immunological surveillance

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  186. Ziegler JL, Beckstead JA, Volberding PA, Abrams DI, Levine AM, Lukes RJ, et al. Non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma in 90 homosexual men: relation to generalized lymphadenopathy and the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. N Engl J Med. 1984;311(9):565–70.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  187. Lozada F, Silverman S Jr, Conant M. New outbreak of oral tumors, malignancies and infectious diseases strikes young male homosexuals. CDA J Calif Dent Assoc. 1982;10(3):39–42.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  188. Kaplan MH, Susin M, Pahwa SG, Fetten J, Allen SL, Lichtman S, et al. Neoplastic complications of HTLV-III infection. Lymphomas and solid tumors. Am J Med. 1987;82(3):389–96.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  189. Safai B, Lynfield R, Lowenthal D, Koziner B. Cancers-associated with HIV infection. Anticancer Res. 1986;7(5B):1055–67.

    Google Scholar 

  190. Robert NJ, Schneiderman H. Hodgkin’s disease and the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Ann Intern Med. 1984;101(1):142–3.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  191. Scheib RG, Siegel RS. Atypical Hodgkin’s disease and the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Ann Intern Med. 1985;102(4):554.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  192. Bernstein L, Levin D, Menck H, Ross RK. AIDS-related secular trends in cancer in Los Angeles County men: a comparison by marital status. Cancer Res. 1989;49(2):466–70.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  193. Spurrett B, Jones D, Stewart G, Crocchiolo P, Lizioli A, Goisis F, et al. Cervical dysplasia and HIV infection. Lancet. 1988;331(8579):237–9.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  194. Overly WL, Jakubek DJ. Multiple squamous cell carcinomas and human immunodeficiency virus infection. Ann Intern Med. 1987;106(2):334.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  195. Milburn PB, Brandsma JL, Goldsman CI, Teplitz ED, Heilman EI. Disseminated warts and evolving squamous cell carcinoma in a patient with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. J Am Acad Dermatol. 1988;19(2):401–5.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  196. Myskowski PL, Straus DJ, Safai B. Lymphoma and other HIV-associated malignancies. J Am Acad Dermatol. 1990;22(6):1253–60.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  197. Levine AM. Lymphoma and other miscellaneous cancers. In: De Vita VT, Hellman S, Rosenberg SA, Curran J, Essex M, Fauci AS, editors. AIDS: etiology, diagnosis, treatment, and prevention. 3rd ed. Philadelphia: J.B. Lippincott Co; 1992. p. 225–35.

    Google Scholar 

  198. Sheil A, Flavel S, Disney A, Mathew T (1985) Cancer development in patients progressing to dialysis and renal transplantation. Transplantation proceedings

    Google Scholar 

  199. Penn I. Cancers complicating organ transplantation. N Engl J Med. 1990;323(25):1767–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  200. Allison A. Tumour development following immunosuppression. Proc R Soc Med. 1970;63(10):1077.

    CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  201. Fahey JL. Cancer in the immunosuppressed patient. Ann Intern Med. 1971;75(2):310–2.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  202. Gatti RA, Good R. The immunological deficiency diseases. Med Clin North Am. 1970;54(2):281–307.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  203. Gleichmann E, Gleichmann H. Immunosuppression and neoplasia. Klin Wochenschr. 1973;51(6):260–5.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  204. Kripke ML, Borsos T. Immunosuppression and carcinogenesis. Isr J Med Sci. 1974;10:888.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  205. Sharma P, Allison JP. The future of immune checkpoint therapy. Science. 2015;348(6230):56–61.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  206. Krueger G. Abnormal variation of the immune system as related to cancer. In: Kaiser H, Hebermann RB, editors. Cancer growth and progression: influence of the host on tumor development, vol. 4. Dordrecht: Kluwer Acad Publ; 1989. p. 139–61.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  207. Cadogan M, Dalgleish AG. HIV induced AIDS and related cancers: chronic immune activation and future therapeutic strategies. Adv Cancer Res. 2008;101:349–95.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  208. Cobucci RNO, Saconato H, Lima PH, Rodrigues HM, Prudêncio TL, Junior JE, et al. Comparative incidence of cancer in HIV-AIDS patients and transplant recipients. Cancer Epidemiol. 2012;36(2):e69–73.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  209. Copper MD, Suzuki T, Buter JL, et al. The generation of pre-B and B cells. In: Eibl MM, Rosen FS, editors. Primary immunodeficiency diseases. New York: Elsevier; 1986. p. 63–70.

    Google Scholar 

  210. Steis R, Broder S. Acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS) and Kaposi’s sarcoma: clinical relationship between immunodeficiency disease and cancer. Important Adv Oncol. 1984:141–69.

    Google Scholar 

  211. Gatti RA, Berkel I, Boder E, Braedt G, Charmley P, Concannon P, et al. Localization of an ataxia-telangiectasia gene to chromosome 11q22–23. Nature. 1988;336(6199):577–80.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  212. Hayakawa H, Kobayashi N, Yata J. Primary immunodeficiency diseases and malignancy in Japan. Jpn J Cancer Res GANN. 1986;77(1):74–9.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  213. Chaganti R, Jhanwar SC, Koziner B, Arlin Z, Mertelsmann R, Clarkson B. Specific translocations characterize Burkitt’s-like lymphoma of homosexual men with the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Blood. 1983;61(6):1265–8.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  214. Petersen JM, Tubbs RR, Savage RA, Calabrese LC, Proffitt MR, Manolova Y, et al. Small noncleaved B cell Burkitt-like lymphoma with chromosome t (8; 14) translocation and Epstein-Barr virus nuclear-associated antigen in a homosexual man with acquired immune deficiency syndrome. Am J Med. 1985;78(1):141–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  215. Haluska FG, Russo G, Kant J, Andreef M, Croce CM. Molecular resemblance of an AIDS-associated lymphoma and endemic Burkitt lymphomas: implications for their pathogenesis. Proc Natl Acad Sci. 1989;86(22):8907–11.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Hematology Oncology Consultancy, Port Angeles, WA, USA

    Christopher Kwesi O. Williams

Authors
  1. Christopher Kwesi O. Williams
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2019 Springer Nature Switzerland AG

About this chapter

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this chapter

Williams, C.K.O. (2019). Global HIV/AIDS Burden and Associated Diseases. In: Cancer and AIDS . Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-99235-8_3

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-99235-8_3

  • Published:

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Cham

  • Print ISBN: 978-3-319-99234-1

  • Online ISBN: 978-3-319-99235-8

  • eBook Packages: MedicineMedicine (R0)

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation