Abstract
Various aspects of polypropylene (PP) crystallization are discussed. The methods of studying the crystallization process and formed crystalline structure are presented. The polymorphism of crystals of polypropylene is presented and discussed. The general aspects of crystal nucleation and growth are recalled and typical structures crystallizing in polypropylene are characterized: single crystals, spherulites, shish-kebabs. The main elements of the nucleation theory are presented and the formation of spherulitic structure is discussed in more details. The crystallization of PP under special conditions has been reviewed. Nucleants for crystallization of polypropylene are briefly revoked. The melting of polypropylene is described.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
References
Wunderlich B (1973) Macromolecular physics. Crystal structure, morphology, defects, vol 1. Academic Press, New York, p 435
Sperling LH (2005) The crystalline state. In: Introduction to physical polymer science, pp 239–323. https://doi.org/10.1002/0471757128.ch6
Wittmann JC, Lotz B (1985) Polymer decoration: the orientation of polymer folds as revealed by the crystallization of polymer vapors. J. Polym. Sci. Polym. Phys. Ed. 23(1):205–226. https://doi.org/10.1002/pol.1985.180230119
Auriemma F, de Ballesteros OR, De Rosa C et al (2000) Structural disorder in the alpha form of isotactic polypropylene. Macromolecules 33(23):8764–8774. https://doi.org/10.1021/ma0002895
Zhu P-w, Edward G (2004) Distribution of Shish-Kebab structure of isotactic polypropylene under shear in the presence of nucleating agent. Macromolecules 37(7):2658–2660. https://doi.org/10.1021/ma0358374
Eckstein A, Suhm J, Friedrich C, Maier RD, Sassmannshausen J, Bochmann M, Mulhaupt R (1998) Determination of plateau moduli and entanglement molecular weights of isotactic, syndiotactic, and atactic polypropylenes synthesized with metallocene catalysts. Macromolecules 31(4):1335–1340. https://doi.org/10.1021/ma971270d
Galeski A (1994) Nucleation in polypropylene. In: J. Karger-Kocsis (ed) Polypropylene: structures, properties and blends. Chapman & Hall, London, pp 25–49
Supaphol P, Spruiell JE (2000) Thermal properties and isothermal crystallization of syndiotactic polypropylenes: Differential scanning calorimetry and overall crystallization kinetics. J Appl Polym Sci 75(1):44–59. https://doi.org/10.1002/(sici)1097-4628(20000103)75:1%3c44:Aid-app6%3e3.0.Co;2-1
Miller RL, Seeley EG (1982) Crystallization kinetics of syndiotactic polypropylene. J Polym Sci Part B Polym Phys 20(12):2297–2307. https://doi.org/10.1002/pol.1982.180201210
Kaminsky W (1998) Highly active metallocene catalysts for olefin polymerization. J Chem Soc, Dalton Trans 9:1413–1418. https://doi.org/10.1039/A800056E
Crist B, Schultz JM (2016) Polymer spherulites: a critical review. Prog Polym Sci 56:1–63. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.progpolymsci.2015.11.006
Yamada K, Matsumoto S, Tagashira K, Hikosaka M (1998) Isotacticity dependence of spherulitic morphology of isotactic polypropylene. Polymer 39:5327–5333. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0032-3861(97)10208-7
Lezak E, Bartczak Z, Galeski A (2006) Plastic deformation behavior of beta-phase isotactic polypropylene in plane-strain compression at room temperature. Polymer 47(26):8562–8574. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.polymer.2006.10.016
Rozanski A, Galeski A (2015) Crystalline lamellae fragmentation during drawing of polypropylene. Macromolecules 48(15):5310–5322. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.macromol.5b01180
Suetsugu Y, Kikutani T, Kyu T et al (1990) An experimental technique for characterizing dispersion in compounds of particulates in thermoplastics using small-angle light scattering. Colloid Polym Sci 268(2):118–131. https://doi.org/10.1007/bf01513190
Okada T, Saito H, Inoue T (1992) Time resolved light scattering studies on the early stages of crystallization in isotactic polypropylene. Macromolecules 25:1908–1911
Jones AT, Aizlewood JM, Beckett DR (1964) Crystalline forms of isotactic polypropylene. Makromol Chem 75:134–158
Hobbs JK, Farrance OE, Kailas L (2009) How atomic force microscopy has contributed to our understanding of polymer crystallization. Polymer 50(18):4281–4292. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.polymer.2009.06.021
Thomann R, Wang C, Kressler J et al (1996) On the phase of isotactic polypropylene. Macromolecules 29:8425–8434. https://doi.org/10.1021/ma951885f
Vancso GJ, Beekmans LGM, Pearce R et al (1999) From microns to nanometers: morphology development in semicrystalline polymers by scanning force microscopy. J Macromol Sci Phys B38(5–6):491–503. https://doi.org/10.1080/00222349908248115
Trifonova-van Haerigan D, Varga J, Ehrenstein GW, Vancso GJ (2000) Features of the hedritic morphology of beta-isotactic polypropylene studied by atomic force microscopy. J Polym Sci B Polym Phys 38:672–681. https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1099-0488(20000301)38:5%3c672:AID-POLB4%3e3.0.CO;2-P
Androsch R, Wunderlich B (2001) Reversible crystallization and melting at the lateral surface of isotactic polypropylene crystals. Macromolecules 34(17):5950–5960. https://doi.org/10.1021/ma010260g
Beckett DR, Chalmers JM, Mackenzie MW et al (1985) the far-infra-red spectra of crystalline isotactic polypropylene polymorphs. Eur Polymer J 21(10):849–852. https://doi.org/10.1016/0014-3057(85)90162-4
Chalmers JM, Edwards HGM, Lees JS et al (1991) Raman-spectra of polymorphs of isotactic polypropylene. J Raman Spectrosc 22(11):613–618. https://doi.org/10.1002/jrs.1250221104
Lotz B (2014) A new ε crystal modification found in stereodefective isotactic polypropylene samples. Macromolecules 47:7612–7624. https://doi.org/10.1021/ma5009868
Norton DR, Keller A (1985) The spherulitic and lamellar morphology of melt-crystallized isotactic polypropylene. Polymer 26:704–716. https://doi.org/10.1016/0032-3861(85)90108-9
Meille SV, Ferro DR, Bruckner S, Lovinger AJ, Padden FJ (1994) Structure of beta-isotactic polypropylene—a long-standing structural puzzle. Macromolecules 27:2615–2622. https://doi.org/10.1021/ma00087a034
Lotz B, Kopp S, Dorset D (1994) An original crystal-structure of polymers with ternary helices. C R Acad Sci Ser II 319(2):187–192
Sowinski P, Piorkowska E, Boyer SAE et al (2016) Nucleation of crystallization of isotactic polypropylene in the gamma form under high pressure in nonisothermal conditions. Eur Polymer J 85:564–574. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eurpolymj.2016.10.055
Keith HD, Padden FJ, Walter NM et al (1959) Evidence for a second crystal form of polypropylene. J Appl Phys 30(10):1485–1488. https://doi.org/10.1063/1.1734986
Li JX, Cheung WL, Jia DM (1999) A study on the heat of fusion of beta-polypropylene. Polymer 40(5):1219–1222. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0032-3861(98)00345-0
Marigo A, Marega C, Causin V et al (2004) Influence of thermal treatments, molecular weight, and molecular weight distribution on the crystallization of beta-isotactic polypropylene. J Appl Polym Sci 91(2):1008–1012. https://doi.org/10.1002/app.13260
Lovinger AJ, Chua JO, Gryte CC (1977) Studies on alpha and beta forms of isotactic polypropylene by crystallization in a temperature-gradient. J Polym Sci Part B Polym Phys 15(4):641–656. https://doi.org/10.1002/pol.1977.180150405
Pawlak A, Piorkowska E (2001) Crystallization of isotactic polypropylene in a temperature gradient. Colloid Polym Sci 279(10):939–946. https://doi.org/10.1007/s003960100519
Varga J (1986) Melting memory effect of the beta-modification of polypropylene. J Therm Anal 31(1):165–172. https://doi.org/10.1007/bf01913897
Varga J (1989) Beta-modification of polypropylene and its 2-component systems. J Therm Anal 35(6):1891–1912. https://doi.org/10.1007/bf01911675
Lotz B, Fillon B, Thierry A et al (1991) Low Tc growth transitions in isotactic polypropylene—beta to alpha and alpha to smectic phases. Polym Bull 25(1):101–105
Lotz B, Graff S, Straupe C et al (1991) Single-crystals of gamma-phase isotactic polypropylene—combined diffraction and morphological support for a structure with nonparallel chains. Polymer 32(16):2902–2910. https://doi.org/10.1016/0032-3861(91)90185-l
Lotz B, Graff S, Wittmann JC (1986) Crystal morphology of the gamma-(triclinic) phase of isotactic polypropylene and its relation to the alpha-phase. J Polym Sci Part B Polym Phys 24(9):2017–2032. https://doi.org/10.1002/polb.1986.090240909
Morrow DR, Newman BA (1968) Crystallization of low-molecular-weight polypropylene fractions. J Appl Phys 39(11):4944–4950. https://doi.org/10.1063/1.1655891
Alamo RG, Kim MH, Galante MJ et al (1999) Structural and kinetic factors governing the formation of the gamma polymorph of isotactic polypropylene. Macromolecules 32(12):4050–4064. https://doi.org/10.1021/ma981849r
Thomann R, Semke H, Maier RD et al (2001) Influence of stereoirregularities on the formation of the gamma-phase in isotactic polypropene. Polymer 42(10):4597–4603. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0032-3861(00)00675-3
De Rosa C, Auriemma F, Circelli T et al (2002) Crystallization of the alpha and gamma forms of isotactic polypropylene as a tool to test the degree of segregation of defects in the polymer chains. Macromolecules 35(9):3622–3629. https://doi.org/10.1021/ma0116248
Mezghani K, Phillips PJ (1998) The gamma-phase of high molecular weight isotactic polypropylene: III. The equilibrium melting point and the phase diagram. Polymer 39(16):3735–3744. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0032-3861(97)10121-5
Mezghani K, Phillips PJ (1997) The gamma-phase of high molecular weight isotactic polypropylene. 2. The morphology of the gamma-form crystallized at 200 MPa. Polymer 38(23):5725–5733. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0032-3861(97)00131-6
Yang SG, Chen YH, Deng BW et al (2017) Window of pressure and flow to produce beta-crystals in lsotactic polypropylene mixed with beta-nucleating agent. Macromolecules 50(12):4807–4816. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.macromol.7b00041
Lotz B (2014) A new epsilon crystal modification found in stereodefective lsotactic polypropylene samples. Macromolecules 47(21):7612–7624. https://doi.org/10.1021/ma5009868
Rieger B, Mu X, Mallin DT et al (1990) Degree of stereochemical control of rac-Et ind 2ZrCl2 MAO catalyst and properties of anisotactic polypropylenes. Macromolecules 23(15):3559–3568. https://doi.org/10.1021/ma00217a005
Liu Q, Sun XL, Li HH et al (2013) Orientation-induced crystallization of isotactic polypropylene. Polymer 54(17):4404–4421. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.polymer.2013.04.066
Piccarolo S, Saiu M, Brucato V et al (1992) Crystallization of polymer melts under fast cooling. 2. High-purity IPP. J Appl Polym Sci 46(4):625–634. https://doi.org/10.1002/app.1992.070460409
Saraf R, Porter RS (1985) Considerations on the structure of smectic polypropylene. Mol Cryst Liq Cryst 2(3–4):85–93
Mileva D, Androsch R, Cavallo D et al (2012) Structure formation of random isotactic copolymers of propylene and 1-hexene or 1-octene at rapid cooling. Eur Polymer J 48(6):1082–1092. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eurpolymj.2012.03.009
Natta G (1960) Alti polimeri lineari del propilene aventi struttura sindiotattica. Accad Naz Lincei Rend Sci Fis Mat Nat XXVIII 5:539–544
De Rosa C, Auriemma F (2006) Structure and physical properties of syndiotactic polypropylene: a highly crystalline thermoplastic elastomer. Prog Polym Sci 31(2):145–237. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.progpolymsci.2005.11.002
Lotz B, Lovinger AJ, Cais RE (1988) Crystal-structure and morphology of syndiotactic polypropylene single-crystals. Macromolecules 21(8):2375–2382. https://doi.org/10.1021/ma00186a013
Rastogi S, La Camera D, van der Burgt F et al (2001) Polymorphism in syndiotactic polypropylene: thermodynamic stable regions for form I and form II in pressure-temperature phase diagram. Macromolecules 34(22):7730–7736. https://doi.org/10.1021/ma0109119
Zhang J, Yang D, Thierry A et al (2001) Isochiral form II of syndiotactic polypropylene produced by epitaxial crystallization. Macromolecules 34(18):6261–6267. https://doi.org/10.1021/ma010758i
De Rosa C, Corradini P (1993) Crystal-structure of syndiotactic polypropylene. Macromolecules 26(21):5711–5718. https://doi.org/10.1021/ma00073a028
De Rosa C, Auriemma F, Vinti V (1998) On the form II of syndiotactic polypropylene. Macromolecules 31(21):7430–7435. https://doi.org/10.1021/ma980789m
Chatani Y, Maruyama H, Asanuma T et al (1991) Structure of a new crystalline phase of syndiotactic polypropylene. J Polym Sci Part B Polym Phys 29(13):1649–1652. https://doi.org/10.1002/polb.1991.090291310
Auriemma F, De Rosa C, De Ballesteros OR et al (1998) On the form IV of syndiotactic polypropylene. J Polym Sci Part B Polym Phys 36(3):395–402. https://doi.org/10.1002/(sici)1099-0488(199802)36:3%3c395:Aid-polb1%3e3.0.Co;2-r
Burns JR, Turnbull D (1966) Kinetics of crystal nucleation in molten isotactic polypropylene. J Appl Phys 37(11):4021–4026. https://doi.org/10.1063/1.1707969
Koutsky JA, Walton AG, Baer E (1967) Nucleation of polymer droplets. J Appl Phys 38(4):1832–1839. https://doi.org/10.1063/1.1709769
Fillon B, Wittmann JC, Lotz B et al (1993) Self-nucleation and recrystallization of isotactic polypropylene (alpha-phase) investigated by differential scanning calorimetry. J Polym Sci Part B Polym Phys 31(10):1383–1393. https://doi.org/10.1002/polb.1993.090311013
Clark EJ, Hoffman JD (1984) Regime-III crystallization in polypropylene. Macromolecules 17(4):878–885. https://doi.org/10.1021/ma00134a058
Hoffman JD, Miller RL (1988) Test of the reptation concept—crystal-growth rate as a function of molecular-weight in polyethylene crystallized from the melt. Macromolecules 21(10):3038–3051. https://doi.org/10.1021/ma00188a024
Crist B (2013) Structure of polycrystalline aggregates. In: Piorkowska R, Routledge G (ed) Handbook of polymer crystallization. Wiley, New Jersey, pp 73–124
Xiao ZG, Sun Q, Xue G et al (2003) Thermal behavior of isotactic polypropylene freeze-extracted from solutions with varying concentrations. Eur Polymer J 39(5):927–931. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0014-3057(02)00313-0
Xiao ZG, Sun N (2016) Crystallization behavior for metallocene-catalyzed isotactic polypropylene in alkane solvents of various molecular sizes. J Therm Anal Calorim 124(1):295–303. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10973-015-5146-3
Morrow DR, Sauer JA, Woodward AE (1965) Dilute solution-grown polypropylene single crystals. J Polym Sci Part B Polym Lett 3(6):463–466. https://doi.org/10.1002/pol.1965.110030608
Kojima M (1967) Morphology of polypropylene crystals. I. Dilute solution-grown lamellar crystals. J Polym Sci Part A-2 Polym Phys 5(3):597–613. https://doi.org/10.1002/pol.1967.160050316
Kojima M (1967) Solution-grown lamellar crystals of thermally decomposed isotactic polypropylene. J Polym Sci Part B Polym Lett 5(3):245–250. https://doi.org/10.1002/pol.1967.110050307
Padden FJ, Keith HD (1966) Crystallization in thin films of isotactic polypropylene. J Appl Phys 37(11):4013–4020. https://doi.org/10.1063/1.1707968
Patel GN, Patel RD (1970) Single crystals of high polymers by film formation. J Polym Sci Part A-2 Polym Phys 8(1):47–59. https://doi.org/10.1002/pol.1970.160080104
Martuscelli E, Pracella M, Zambelli A (1980) Properties of solution-grown crystals of fractions of isotactic polypropylene with different degrees of stereoregularity. J Polym Sci Part B Polym Phys 18(3):619–636. https://doi.org/10.1002/pol.1980.180180320
Yamada K, Kajioka H, Nozaki K et al (2011) Morphology and growth of single crystals of isotactic polypropylene from the melt. J Macromol Sci Part B Phys 50(2):236–247. https://doi.org/10.1080/00222341003648847
Prud’homme RE (2016) Crystallization and morphology of ultrathin films of homopolymers and polymer blends. Prog Polym Sci 54–55:214–231. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.progpolymsci.2015.11.001
Zhang B, Chen JJ, Liu BC et al (2017) Morphological changes of isotactic polypropylene crystals grown in thin films. Macromolecules 50(16):6210–6217. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.macromol.7b01381
Zhang GJ, Lee PC, Jenkins S et al (2014) The effect of confined spherulite morphology of high-density polyethylene and polypropylene on their gas barrier properties in multilayered film systems. Polymer 55(17):4521–4530. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.polymer.2014.07.009
Tsukruk VV, Reneker DH (1995) Surface morphology of syndiotactic polypropylene single crystals observed by atomic force microscopy. Macromolecules 28(5):1370–1376. https://doi.org/10.1021/ma00109a007
Bu ZZ, Yoon Y, Ho RM et al (1996) Crystallization, melting, and morphology of syndiotactic polypropylene fractions. 3. Lamellar single crystals and chain folding. Macromolecules 29(20):6575–6581. https://doi.org/10.1021/ma9603793
Zhou W, Cheng SZD, Putthanarat S et al (2000) Crystallization, melting and morphology of syndiotactic polypropylene fractions. 4. In situ lamellar single crystal growth and melting in different sectors. Macromolecules 33(18):6861–6868. https://doi.org/10.1021/ma000802e
Marchetti A, Martuscelli E (1974) Effect of chain defects on morphology and thermal-behavior of solution-grown single-crystals of syndiotactic polypropylene. J Polym Sci Part B Polym Phys 12(8):1649–1666. https://doi.org/10.1002/pol.1974.180120812
Lovinger AJ, Davis DD, Lotz B (1991) Temperature-dependence of structure and morphology of syndiotactic polypropylene and epitaxial relationships with isotactic polypropylene. Macromolecules 24(2):552–560. https://doi.org/10.1021/ma00002a033
Hoffman JD, Frolen LJ, Ross GS et al (1975) Growth-rate of spherulites and axialites from melt in polyethylene fractions—regime-1 and regime-2 crystallization. J Res Nat Bur Stan Sect A Phys Chem 79(6):671–699. https://doi.org/10.6028/jres.079A.026
Kovacs AJ, Gonthier A (1972) Crystallization and fusion of self-seeded polymers. 2. Growth-rate, morphology and isothermal thickening of single-crystals of low molecular-weight poly(ethylene-oxide) fractions. Kolloid Z Z Polym 250(5):530–552. https://doi.org/10.1007/bf01507524
Khoury F, Passaglia E (1976). In: Hannay NB (ed) Treatise on solid state chemistry. Crystalline and noncrystalline solids, vol 3. Plenum, New York
Bassett DC (1981) Principles of polymer morphology. Cambridge University Press, New York
Keith HD, Padden FJ (1963) A phenomenological theory of spherulitic crystallization. J Appl Phys 34(8):2409–2421. https://doi.org/10.1063/1.1702757
White HM, Bassett DC, Jaaskelainen P (2009) A quantitative electron-microscopic investigation of alpha-phase lamellae in isotactic polypropylene fractions. Polymer 50(23):5559–5564. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.polymer.2009.09.038
Pawlak A, Galeski A (1990) Stability of spherulite growth-rate. J Polym Sci Part B Polym Phys 28(10):1813–1821. https://doi.org/10.1002/polb.1990.090281012
Nakamura K, Shimizu S, Umemoto S et al (2008) Temperature dependence of crystal growth rate for alpha and beta forms of isotactic polypropylene. Polym J 40(9):915–922. https://doi.org/10.1295/polymj.PJ2007231
Padden FJ, Keith HD (1959) Spherulitic crystallization in polypropylene. J Appl Phys 30(10):1479–1484. https://doi.org/10.1063/1.1734985
Li JX, Cheung WL (1999) RuO4 staining and lamellar structure of alpha- and beta-PP. J Appl Polym Sci 72(12):1529–1538. https://doi.org/10.1002/(sici)1097-4628(19990620)72:12%3c1529:Aid-app4%3e3.0.Co;2-u
Keith HD, Padden FJ (1996) Banding in polyethylene and other spherulites. Macromolecules 29(24):7776–7786. https://doi.org/10.1021/ma960634j
Varga J (1992) Supermolecular structure of isotactic polypropylene. J Mater Sci 27(10):2557–2579. https://doi.org/10.1007/bf00540671
Varga J, Ehrenstein GW (1997) High-temperature hedritic crystallization of the beta-modification of isotactic polypropylene. Colloid Polym Sci 275(6):511–519. https://doi.org/10.1007/s003960050113
Bai HW, Wang Y, Zhang ZJ et al (2009) Influence of annealing on microstructure and mechanical properties of isotactic polypropylene with beta-phase nucleating agent. Macromolecules 42(17):6647–6655. https://doi.org/10.1021/ma9001269
Rodriguez-Arnold J, Bu ZZ, Cheng SZD et al (1994) Crystallization, melting and morphology of syndiotactic polypropylene fractions. 2. Linear crystal-growth rate and crystal morphology. Polymer 35(24):5194–5201. https://doi.org/10.1016/0032-3861(94)90469-3
Monks AW, White HM, Bassett DC (1996) On shish-kebab morphologies in crystalline polymers. Polymer 37(26):5933–5936. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0032-3861(96)00626-x
Han R, Nie M, Wang Q (2015) Control over beta-form hybrid shish-kebab crystals in polypropylene pipe via coupled effect of self-assembly beta nucleating agent and rotation extrusion. J Taiwan Inst Chem Eng 52:158–164. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jtice.2015.02.002
Schultz JM, Lin JS, Hendricks RW et al (1981) Annealing of polypropylene films crystallized from a highly extended melt. J Polym Sci Part B Polym Phys 19(4):609–620. https://doi.org/10.1002/pol.1981.180190405
Petermann J, Gohil RM, Schultz JM et al (1982) The kinetics of defect clustering in fibrillar polypropylene crystals. J Polym Sci Part B Polym Phys 20(3):523–534. https://doi.org/10.1002/pol.1982.180200313
Balzano L, Ma Z, Cavallo D et al (2016) Molecular aspects of the formation of shish-kebab in isotactic polypropylene. Macromolecules 49(10):3799–3809. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.macromol.6b00428
Nogales A, Hsiao BS, Somani RH et al (2001) Shear-induced crystallization of isotactic polypropylene with different molecular weight distributions: in situ small- and wide-angle X-ray scattering studies. Polymer 42(12):5247–5256. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0032-3861(00)00919-8
Ania F, Rueda DR, Balta-Calleja FJ et al (2000) Time resolved USAXS study of the shish-kebab structure in PE: annealing and melt crystallization. J Mater Sci 35(20):5199–5205. https://doi.org/10.1023/a:1004864606257
Hoffman JD, Davis GT, Lauritzen JI (1976) Crystalline and noncrystalline solids. In: Hannay NB (ed) Treatise on solid state chemistry, vol 3. Plenum, New York
Hoffman JD (1983) Regime-III crystallization in melt-crystallized polymers—the variable cluster model of chain folding. Polymer 24(1):3–26. https://doi.org/10.1016/0032-3861(83)90074-5
DiMarzio EA, Guttman CM, Hoffman JD (1979) Is crystallization from the melt controlled by melt viscosity and entanglement effects. Faraday Discuss 68:210–217. https://doi.org/10.1039/dc9796800210
Turnbull D, Fisher JC (1949) Rate of nucleation in condensed systems. J Chem Phys 17(1):71–73. https://doi.org/10.1063/1.1747055
Cheng SZD, Lotz B (2005) Enthalpic and entropic origins of nucleation barriers during polymer crystallization: the Hoffman-Lauritzen theory and beyond. Polymer 46(20):8662–8681. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.polymer.2005.03.125
Lauritzen JI, Hoffman JD (1960) Theory of formation of polymer crystals with folded chains in dilute solution. J Res Natl Bur Stand Sect A Phys Chem 64(1):73–102. https://doi.org/10.6028/jres.064A.007
Hoffman JD, Lauritzen JI (1961) Crystallization of bulk polymers with chain folding—theory of growth of lamellar spherulites. J Res Natl Bur Stand A 65(4):297-+. https://doi.org/10.6028/jres.065a.035
Lauritzen JI, Hoffman JD (1973) Extension of theory of growth of chain-folded polymer crystals to large undercoolings. J Appl Phys 44(10):4340–4352. https://doi.org/10.1063/1.1661962
Hoffman JD, Miller RL (1997) Kinetics of crystallization from the melt and chain folding in polyethylene fractions revisited: theory and experiment. Polymer 38(13):3151–3212. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0032-3861(97)00071-2
Hoffman JD (1982) Role of reptation in the rate of crystallization of polyethylene fractions from the melt. Polymer 23(5):656–670. https://doi.org/10.1016/0032-3861(82)90048-9
Cheng SZD, Janimak JJ, Zhang A et al (1990) Regime transitions in fractions of isotactic polypropylene. Macromolecules 23(1):298–303. https://doi.org/10.1021/ma00203a051
Rodriguez-Arnold J, Zhang AQ, Cheng SZD et al (1994) Crystallization, melting and morphology of syndiotactic polypropylene fractions. 1. Thermodynamic properties, overall crystallization and melting. Polymer 35(9):1884–1895. https://doi.org/10.1016/0032-3861(94)90978-4
Pawlak A, Piorkowska E (1999) Effect of negative pressure on melting behavior of spherulites in thin films of several crystalline polymers. J Appl Polym Sci 74(6):1380–1385. https://doi.org/10.1002/(sici)1097-4628(19991107)74:6%3c1380:Aid-app9%3e3.0.Co;2-m
Galeski A, Koenczoel L, Piorkowska E et al (1987) Acoustic-emission during polymer crystallization. Nature 325(6099):40–41. https://doi.org/10.1038/325040a0
Galeski A, Piorkowska E, Koenczoel L et al (1990) Acoustic-emission during crystallization of polymers. J Polym Sci Part B Polym Phys 28(7):1171–1186. https://doi.org/10.1002/polb.1990.090280714
Schultz JM (1984) Microstructural aspects of failure in semicrystalline polymers. Polym Eng Sci 24(10):770–785. https://doi.org/10.1002/pen.760241007
Monasse B, Haudin JM (1986) Thermal-dependence of nucleation and growth-rate in polypropylene by non isothermal calorimetry. Colloid Polym Sci 264(2):117–122. https://doi.org/10.1007/bf01414836
Nowacki R, Kolasinska J, Piorkowska E (2001) Cavitation during isothermal crystallization of isotactic polypropylene. J Appl Polym Sci 79(13):2439–2448. https://doi.org/10.1002/1097-4628(20010328)79:13%3c2439:Aid-app1051%3e3.0.Co;2-%23
Supaphol P, Spruiell JE (2000) Regime crystallization in syndiotactic polypropylenes: re-evaluation of the literature data. Polymer 41(3):1205–1216. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0032-3861(99)00254-2
Tranchida D, Mileva D, Resconi L et al (2015) Molecular and thermal characterization of a nearly perfect isotactic poly(propylene). Macromol Chem Phys 216(22):2171–2178. https://doi.org/10.1002/macp.201500189
Galeski S, Piorkowska E, Rozanski A et al (2016) Crystallization kinetics of polymer fibrous nanocomposites. Eur Polymer J 83:181–201. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eurpolymj.2016.08.002
Rhoades AM, Wonderling N, Gohn A et al (2016) Effect of cooling rate on crystal polymorphism in beta-nucleated isotactic polypropylene as revealed by a combined WAXS/FSC analysis. Polymer 90:67–75. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.polymer.2016.02.047
Zia Q, Androsch R, Radusch HJ et al (2006) Morphology, reorganization and stability of mesomorphic nanocrystals in isotactic polypropylene. Polymer 47(24):8163–8172. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.polymer.2006.09.038
Piorkowska E (1995) Nonisothermal crystallization of polymers. 1. The background of the mathematical-description of spherulitic pattern-formation. J Phys Chem 99(38):14007–14015. https://doi.org/10.1021/j100038a036
Piorkowska E, Galeski A, Haudin JM (2006) Critical assessment of overall crystallization kinetics theories and predictions. Prog Polym Sci 31(6):549–575. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.progpolymsci.2006.05.001
Balbontin G, Dainelli D, Galimberti M et al (1992) Thermal-behavior of highly stereoregular syndiotactic polypropene from homogeneous catalysts. Makromol Chem Macromol Chem Phys 193(3):693–703
Rozanski A, Monasse B, Szkudlarek E et al (2009) Shear-induced crystallization of isotactic polypropylene based nanocomposites with montmorillonite. Eur Polymer J 45(1):88–101. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eurpolymj.2008.10.011
Kumaraswamy G, Issaian AM, Kornfield JA (1999) Shear-enhanced crystallization in isotactic polypropylene. 1. Correspondence between in situ rheo-optics and ex situ structure determination. Macromolecules 32(22):7537–7547. https://doi.org/10.1021/ma990772j
Hayashi Y, Matsuba G, Zhao YF et al (2009) Precursor of shish-kebab in isotactic polystyrene under shear flow. Polymer 50(9):2095–2103. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.polymer.2009.03.008
Hamad FG, Colby RH, Milner ST (2015) Lifetime of flow-induced precursors in isotactic polypropylene. Macromolecules 48(19):7286–7299. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.macromol.5b01408
Tribout C, Monasse B, Haudin JM (1996) Experimental study of shear-induced crystallization of an impact polypropylene copolymer. Colloid Polym Sci 274(3):197–208. https://doi.org/10.1007/bf00665636
Jay F, Haudin JM, Monasse B (1999) Shear-induced crystallization of polypropylenes: effect of molecular weight. J Mater Sci 34(9):2089–2102. https://doi.org/10.1023/a:1004563827491
Somani RH, Yang L, Hsiao BS (2006) Effects of high molecular weight species on shear-induced orientation and crystallization of isotactic polypropylene. Polymer 47(15):5657–5668. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.polymer.2004.12.066
Janeschitz-Kriegl H, Ratajski E, Stadlbauer M (2003) Flow as an effective promotor of nucleation in polymer melts: a quantitative evaluation. Rheol Acta 42(4):355–364. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00397-002-0247-x
Eder G, Janeschitz-Kriegl H, Liedauer S (1990) Crystallization processes in quiescent and moving polymer melts under heat-transfer conditions. Prog Polym Sci 15(4):629–714. https://doi.org/10.1016/0079-6700(90)90008-o
Haudin JM, Duplay C, Monasse B et al (2002) Shear-induced crystallization of polypropylene. Growth enhancement and rheology in the crystallization range. Macromol Symp 185:119–133. https://doi.org/10.1002/1521-3900(200208)185:1%3c119:Aid-masy119%3e3.0.Co;2-k
Vleeshouwers S, Meijer HEH (1996) A rheological study of shear induced crystallization. Rheol Acta 35(5):391–399. https://doi.org/10.1007/bf00368990
Jerschow P, Janeschitz-Kriegl H (1997) The role of long molecules and nucleating agents in shear induced crystallization of isotactic polypropylenes. Int Polym Process 12(1):72–77. https://doi.org/10.3139/217.970072
Liedauer S, Eder G, Janeschitz-Kriegl H et al (1993) On the kinetics of shear-induced crystallization in polypropylene. Int Polym Process 8(3):236–244. https://doi.org/10.3139/217.930236
Kimata S, Sakurai T, Nozue Y et al (2007) Molecular basis of the shish-kebab morphology in polymer crystallization. Science 316(5827):1014–1017. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1140132
Smith P, Pennings AJ (1976) Unidirectional solidification of isotactic polypropylene. Eur Polymer J 12(11):781–784. https://doi.org/10.1016/0014-3057(76)90070-7
Zhang YF, Li D, Chen QJ (2017) Preparation and nucleation effects of nucleating agent hexahydrophthalic acid metal salts for isotactic polypropylene. Colloid Polym Sci 295(10):1973–1982. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00396-017-4176-8
Mathieu C, Thierry A, Wittmann JC et al (2002) Specificity and versatility of nucleating agents toward isotactic polypropylene crystal phases. J Polym Sci Part B Polym Phys 40(22):2504–2515. https://doi.org/10.1002/polb.10309
Varga J, Mudra I, Ehrenstein GW (1999) Highly active thermally stable beta-nucleating agents for isotactic polypropylene. J Appl Polym Sci 74(10):2357–2368. https://doi.org/10.1002/(sici)1097-4628(19991205)74:10%3c2357:Aid-app3%3e3.0.Co;2-2
Chen J, Schneider K, Kretzschmar B et al (2014) Nucleation and growth behavior of beta-nucleated iPP during shear induced crystallization investigated by in-situ synchrotron WAXS and SAXS. Polymer 55(21):5477–5487. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.polymer.2014.07.058
Chen J, Schneider K, Gao S et al (2015) In-situ synchrotron X-ray studies of crystallization of beta-nucleated iPP subjected to a wide range of shear rates and shear temperatures. Polymer 76:182–190. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.polymer.2015.08.042
Yamada K, Hikosaka M, Toda A et al (2003) Equilibrium melting temperature of isotactic polypropylene with high tacticity: 1. Determination by differential scanning calorimetry. Macromolecules 36(13):4790–4801. https://doi.org/10.1021/ma021206i
Iijima M, Strobl G (2000) Isothermal crystallization and melting of isotactic polypropylene analyzed by time- and temperature-dependent small-angle X-ray scattering experiments. Macromolecules 33(14):5204–5214. https://doi.org/10.1021/ma000019m
Xu J, Heck B, Ye HM et al (2016) Stabilization of nuclei of lamellar polymer crystals: insights from a comparison of the Hoffman-Weeks line with the crystallization line. Macromolecules 49(6):2206–2215. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.macromol.5b02123
Wunderlich B (1980) Macromolecular physics. Crystal melting, vol 3. Academic Press, New York
Mezghani K, Phillips PJ (1994) Equilibrium melting-point of deuterated polypropylene. Macromolecules 27(21):6145–6146. https://doi.org/10.1021/ma00099a032
Cheng SZD, Janimak JJ, Zhang AQ et al (1991) Isotacticity effect on crystallization and melting in polypropylene fractions. 1. Crystalline-structures and thermodynamic property changes. Polymer 32(4):648–655. https://doi.org/10.1016/0032-3861(91)90477-z
Hoffman JD, Weeks JJ (1962) Melting process and equilibrium melting temperature of polychlorotrifluoroethylene. J Res Natl Bur Stand Sect A-Phys Chem 66(JAN-F):13-+. https://doi.org/10.6028/jres.066a.003
Philips RA, Wolkowicz MD (1996) In: Moore EP Jr (ed) Polypropylene handbook. Hanser Verlag, Munich
Xu JN, Srinivas S, Marand H et al (1998) Equilibrium melting temperature and undercooling dependence of the spherulitic growth rate of isotactic polypropylene. Macromolecules 31(23):8230–8242. https://doi.org/10.1021/ma980748q
Mezghani K, Campbell RA, Phillips PJ (1994) Lamellar thickening and the equilibrium melting-point of polypropylene. Macromolecules 27(4):997–1002. https://doi.org/10.1021/ma00082a017
Huang TW, Alamo RG, Mandelkern L (1999) Fusion of isotactic poly(propylene). Macromolecules 32(19):6374–6376. https://doi.org/10.1021/ma990092g
Marand H, Xu JN, Srinivas S (1998) Determination of the equilibrium melting temperature of polymer crystals: linear and nonlinear Hoffman-Weeks extrapolations. Macromolecules 31(23):8219–8229. https://doi.org/10.1021/ma980747y
Monasse B, Haudin JM (1985) Growth transition and morphology change in polypropylene. Colloid Polym Sci 263(10):822–831. https://doi.org/10.1007/bf01412960
De Rosa C, Auriemma F, Vinti V, Galimberti M (1998) Equilibrium melting temperature of syndiotactic polypropylene. Macromolecules 31(18):6206–6210. https://doi.org/10.1021/ma9805248
Wang X, Hou WM, Zhou JJ et al (2007) Melting behavior of lamellae of isotactic polypropylene studied using hot-stage atomic force microscopy. Colloid Polym Sci 285(4):449–455. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00396-006-1586-4
Alamo RG, Brown GM, Mandelkern L et al (1999) A morphological study of a highly structurally regular isotactic poly(propylene) fraction. Polymer 40(14):3933–3944. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0032-3861(98)00613-2
White HM, Bassett DC (1997) On variable nucleation geometry and segregation in isotactic polypropylene. Polymer 38(22):5515–5520. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0032-3861(97)00110-9
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2019 Springer Nature Switzerland AG
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Pawlak, A., Galeski, A. (2019). Crystallization of Polypropylene. In: Karger-Kocsis, J., Bárány, T. (eds) Polypropylene Handbook. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-12903-3_4
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-12903-3_4
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-030-12902-6
Online ISBN: 978-3-030-12903-3
eBook Packages: Chemistry and Materials ScienceChemistry and Material Science (R0)