Definition of the Subject and Its Importance
Present-day concerns of looming energy shortages and drastic climate change resulting from human activities have stimulated deployment of renewable energy systems , including systems to convert solar energy directly into heat or electricity and to substitute sunlight for artificial light.
Solar radiation provides the energy driving the ecosystems and climate of planet Earth. This radiation spans the electromagnetic spectrum from the highly energetic X-ray region through the ultraviolet, visible, and infrared to the far infrared and radio regions. The radiation interacts with the Earth’s electromagnetic and atmospheric envelope, resulting in large variations in the magnitude of solar radiation available for conversion into other forms of useful energy. Most conversion systems utilize only part of the solar spectrum. For daylighting, the energy in the human visual response range (wavelengths of 380–850 nm) is important. Crystal silicon...
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Abbreviations
- Aerosol optical depth:
-
A dimensionless parameter for the extinction of solar radiation by scattering and absorption by aerosol particles between the point of observation and the top of the atmosphere.
- Air mass:
-
The length of the path from an observer’s location to the top of the atmosphere, which passes through the center of the sun, relative to the zenith (perpendicular to the local horizontal = air mass 1).
- Broadband radiation:
-
Photons in a wide electromagnetic spectral wavelength range, typically several hundred nanometers (nm) wide.
- Diffuse hemispherical radiation:
-
Photons scattered in the atmosphere, excluding those from the solar disk, arriving on a horizontal surface originating from the 2Ï€ steradian hemisphere of the sky dome.
- Direct normal radiation:
-
Nearly parallel rays of photons arriving on a surface perpendicular to the line from the observer to the center of the solar disk originating from within the 0.5° solid angle centered on the solar disk. Experimentally, this also includes additional sky radiation within 2.5°–3° of the center of the solar disk.
- Extinction:
-
Gradual loss of amplitude in a signal propagating though an absorbing or scattering medium.
- Extraterrestrial solar radiation:
-
Direct normal radiation at the top of the Earth’s atmosphere. Acronym: ETR.
- Global hemispherical radiation:
-
The combination of photons from the sky dome and solar disk (diffuse hemispherical and projection of the direct normal radiation) received on a horizontal surface.
- Incidence angle:
-
The angle between the center of the solar disk and the foot of the normal (perpendicular) of a receiving surface.
- Pyranometer:
-
A radiometer with a 2Ï€ steradian (hemispherical) field of view used to measure global hemispherical or diffuse hemispherical radiation.
- Pyrheliometer:
-
A radiometer with a restricted field of view (typically 5°–6°) used to measure direct normal radiation.
- Responsivity:
-
The ratio of the output signal of a radiometer to the optical power intercepted by the sensor.
- Solar radiation:
-
Electromagnetic emissions from the sun between at least 250 and 2,500 nm.
- Zenith angle:
-
The angle between the local vertical and the center of the solar disk; complement of the solar elevation angle (angle from the center of the solar disk to the horizon).
Bibliography
Primary Literature
Cox AN (1999) Allen’s astrophysical quantities, 4th edn. AIP/Springer, New York
Frohlich CJ (1998) Total solar irradiance variations: the construction of a composite and its comparison with models. In: International Astronomical Union Symposium 185: New eyes to see inside the sun and stars. Kluwer Academic, Dortrect
Whipple RS (1915) Instruments for the measurement of solar radiation. Trans Opt Soc Lond 15(1):106–182
Coulson KL (1975) Solar and terrestrial radiation. Academic, New York
Hufbauer K (1991) Exploring the sun: solar science since Galileo (Series in NASA history). Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore
Krupp EC (1978) In search of ancient astronomers. Doubleday, New York
Brecher K, Feirtag M (1979) Astronomy of the ancients. MIT Press, Cambridge
Langley SP (1883) The selective absorption of solar energy. Am J Sci Ser 3(25):169–196
Callendar HL, Fowler A (1906) The horizontal bolometer. Proc Phys Soc Lond A 77:15–16
Abbot CG, Aldrich LB (1932) An improved water-flow pyrheliometer and the standard scale of solar radiation. Smithson Misc Coll 87(15)
Abbot CG (1911) The silver disk pyrheliometer. Smithson Misc Coll 56(11)
Angstrom K (1899) The absolute determination of the radiation of heat with the electric compensation pyrheliometer with examples of application of this instrument. Astrophysical J 9:332–346
Angstrom AK (1919) A new instrument for measuring sky radiation. Q J R Meteorol Soc 50:124–126
Aldrich LB, Abbot CG (1948) Smithsonian pyrheliometry and the standard scale of solar radiation. Smithson Misc Coll 110(5)
Abbot CG, Aldrich LB (1916) The pyranometer – an instrument for measuring sky radiation. Smithson Misc Coll 66(7):9
Robitzsh M (1932) Uber den bimetallaktinographen reuss-robitzsh. Gerlands Beitr Geophys 35:387–394
Dirmhirn I (1958) Untersuchengen an sternpyranometern. Arch Meteorol Geophysik Bioklimat B 7:124–128
Yanishevski YD (1957) Actinometric instruments and methods of observation. Hydrometeorological Publishing House, Leningrad
Kendall JM, Berdahl CM (1970) Two blackbody radiometers of high accuracy. Appl Opt 9(5):1082–1091
Willson RC (1973) Active cavity radiometer. Appl Opt 12(4):810–817
Crommelynck D, Hall JB (1982) Fundamentals of absolute pyrheliometry and objective characterization. NASA CP-2239. National Aeronautics and Space Administration
Brusa RW, Frohlich C (1980) The PMO-6 radiometer and its characterization. World Radiation Center, Davos
Hickey JR, Drummond AJ, Thekaekara MP (1973) A satellite experiment to establish the principal extraterrestrial solar energetic fluxes and their variances. The Extraterrestrial Solar Spectrum, Institute of Environmental Sciences, Mount Prospect
Smith WL, Hickey J, Howell HB, Jacobowitz H, Hilleary DT, Drummond AJ (1973) Nimbus-6 earth radiation budget experiment. Appl Opt 13(3):306–318
Frohlich C (1978) World radiometric reference. WMO/CIMO Final Report WMO No. 490. World Meteorological Organization, Geneva, pp 108–112
WMO (1983) OMM No. 8 guide to meteorological instruments and methods of observation, 5th edn, vol 8. Secretariat of the World Meteorological Organization, Geneva
Frohlich C (1991) History of solar radiometry and the world radiation reference. Metrologia 28:111–115
Romero J, Fox NP, Frohlich C (1996) Improved comparison of the world radiometric reference and the SI radiometric scale. Metrologia 32(6):523–524
Ruedi I (2001) International pyrheliometer comparison IPC IX. Meteoswiss Working Report No. 197. Davos, Zurich, http://www.pmodwrc.ch/pdf/ipc9-final.pdf
Reda I, Stoffel T, Myers D (1996) Calibration of a solar absolute cavity radiometer with traceability to the World Radiometric Reference. NREL/TP-463-20619. National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Golden. http://www.nrel.gov/docs/legosti/fy96/20619.pdf
ASTM E816-05 (2005) Standard test method for calibration of pyrheliometers by comparison to reference pyrheliometers. ASTM International, West Conshocken
ISO (1990) Standard 9050: solar energy – calibration of field pyrheliometers by comparison to a reference pyrheliometer. American National Standards Institute, New York
ASTM G167-05 (2005) Standard test method for calibration of a pyranometer using a pyrheliometer. ASTM International, West Conshocken
ISO (1990) Standard 9060: solar energy – specification and classification of instruments for measuring hemispherical solar and direct solar radiation. American National Standards Institute, New York
Reda I, Myers D (1999) Calculating the diffuse responsivity of solar pyranometers. NREL/TP-560-26483, National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Golden
Reda I, Stoffel T, Myers D (2003) A method to calibrate a solar pyranometer for measuring reference diffuse irradiance. Sol Energy 74:103–112
BIPM (1995) Guide to the expression of uncertainty in measurement. BIPM, http://www.bipm.org/utils/common/documents/jcgm/JCGM_100_2008_E.pdf
Myers DR, Emery KA, Stoffel TL (1989) Uncertainty estimates of global solar irradiance measurements used to evaluate PV device performance. Sol Cells 27:455–464
Taylor BN, Kuyatt CE (1993) Guidelines for evaluation and expressing the uncertainty of NIST measurement results, NIST Technical Note 1297. National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg
Ohmura A, Dutton E, Forgan B, Fröhlich C, Gilgen H, Hegner H, Heimo A, König-Langlo G, McArthur B, Muller G, Phillapona R, Pinker R, Whitlock C, Dehne K, Wild M (1998) Baseline Surface Radiation Network (BSRN/WCRP): New precision radiometry for climate change research. Bull Am Meteorol Soc 79(10):2115–2136
Gulbrandsen A (1978) On the use of pyranometers in the study of spectral solar radiation and atmospheric aerosols. J Appl Meteorol 17:899–904
Haeffelin M, Smith AM, Mahan JR, Rutledge CK, Kato S (1999) Surface shortwave radiation measurements: experimental tests and numerical simulations of pyranometers. Ninth ARM Science Team Meeting, U.S. Department of Energy, San Antonio
Haeffelin M, Kato S, Smith AM, Rutledge CK, Charlock TP, Mahan JR (2001) Determination of the thermal offset of the Eppley precision spectral pyranometer. Appl Opt 40(4):472–484
Dutton EG, Michalsky JJ, Stoffel T, Forgan BW, Hickey J, Alberta TL, Reda I (2001) Measurement of broadband diffuse solar irradiance using current commercial instrumentation with a correction for thermal offset errors. J Atmos Oceanic Technol 18(3):297–314
Philipona R (2002) Underestimation of solar global and diffuse radiation measured at the Earth’s surface. J Geophys Res 107(D22):ACL 15-1-ACL 15-8
Reda I (1998) Improving the accuracy of using pyranometers to measure clear sky global irradiance. NREL/TP-560-24833, National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Golden
Reda I, Myers D, Stoffel T (2009) Uncertainty estimate for the outdoor calibration of solar pyranometers: a metrologist perspective. J Meas 3(4):58–66 NCSL International, Boulder
Vignola F, Reda I (1998) Responsivity of an Eppley NIP as a function of time and temperature. In: Proceedings of the 1998 American Solar Energy Conference, Albuquerque. American Solar Energy Society, Boulder
Perez R, Stewart R (1986) Solar irradiance conversion models. Sol Cells 18:213–222
Muneer T, Younes S, Munnawar S (2007) Discourses on solar radiation modeling. Renewable Sustainable Energy Rev 11:551–602
Muneer T (2004) Solar radiation and daylight models. Elsevier.Butterworth and Heinemann, Oxford
Iqbal M (1983) An introduction to solar radiation. Academic, New York
Badescu V (2008) Modeling solar radiation at the earth surface. Springer, Berlin
Bird RE, Hulstrom RL (1981) Review, evaluation, and improvement of direct irradiance models. J Sol Energy Eng Am Soc Mech Eng 103:182–192
Gueymard C (2008) REST2: high performance solar radiation model for cloudless-sky irradiance, illuminance, and photosynthetically active radiation-validation with a benchmark data set. Sol Energy 82:272–285
Ineichen P (2006) Comparison of eight clear sky broadband models against 16 independent data banks. Sol Energy 80:468–478
Wong LT, Chow WK (2001) Solar radiation model. Appl Energy 69:191–224
Muneer T, Gul MS, Kubie J (2000) Models for estimating solar radiation and illuminance from meteorological parameters. J Sol Energy Eng Am Soc Mech Eng 122:146–153
Gueymard C (2003) Direct solar transmittance and irradiance predictions with broadband models. Part I: detailed theoretical performance assessment. Sol Energy 74:355–379
Kasten F, Czeplak G (1980) Solar and terrestrial radiation dependent on the amount and type of cloud. Sol Energy 24:177–189
Cano D, Monget JM, Albuisson M, Guillard H, Regas N, Wald L (1986) A method for the determination of the global solar radiation from meteorological satellites data. Sol Energy 37:31–39
Diabaté L, Moussu G, Wald L (1989) Description of an operational tool for determining global solar radiation at ground using geostationary satellite images. Sol Energy 42:201–207
Perez R, Ineichen P, Moore K, Kmiecik M, Chain C, George R, Vignola F (2002) A new operational model for satellite derived irradiances: description and validation. Sol Energy 73(5):307–317
Šúri M, Huld T, Dunlop ED, Albuisson M, Lefèvre M, Wald L (2007) Uncertainties in photovoltaic electricity yield prediction from fluctuation of solar radiation. In: Proceedings of the 22nd European Photovoltaic Solar Energy Conference, Milano
Gueymard C, Wilcox S (2009) Spatial and temporal variability in the solar resource: assessing the value of short term measurements at potential solar power plant sites. In: Proceedings of Solar 2009, Buffalo, May 11–16, 2009. American Solar Energy Society, Boulder
Maxwell EL (1998) METSTAT – The solar radiation model used in the production of the National Solar Radiation Data Base (NSRDB). Sol Energy 62(4):263–279
Gueymard C (2009) Direct and indirect uncertainties in the prediction of tilted irradiance for solar engineering applications. Sol Energy 83:432–444
Perez R, Seals R, Ineichen P, Stewart R, Menicucci D (1987) A new simplified version of the Perez diffuse irradiance model for tilted surfaces. Sol Energy 39(3):221–231
Maxwell E (1987) A quasi-physical model for converting hourly global horizontal to direct normal insolation. SERI/TR-215-3087, Solar Energy Research Institute, Golden
Liu BYH, Jordan RC (1960) The interrelationship and characteristic distribution of direct diffuse and total solar radiation. Sol Energy 3:1–19
Perez R, Seals R, Zelenka A, Ineichen P (1990) Climatic evaluation of models that predict hourly direct irradiance from hourly global irradiance: prospects for performance improvements. Sol Energy 44(2):99–108
Orgill JF, Hollands KG (1977) Correlation equation for hourly diffuse radiation on a horizontal surface. Sol Energy 19(4):357–359
Erbs DG, Klein SA, Duffie JA (1982) Estimation of the diffuse radiation fraction for hourly, daily, and monthly average solar radiation. Sol Energy 28(4):293–304
Spencer JW (1982) A comparison of methods for estimating hourly diffuse solar radiation from global solar radiation. Sol Energy 29(1):19–32
Books and Reviews
Bohren CF (1989) Selected papers on scattering in the atmosphere. SPIE Milestone Series vol MS 7, SPIE Optical Engineering Press. Bellingham, WA
Chandrasekhar S (1960) Radiative transfer. Dover, New York
Deick RH (1992) Measurement uncertainty methods and applications. Instrument Society of America, Research Triangle Park
Dogniaux R (1994) Prediction of solar radiation in areas with a specific microclimate. Commission of the European Communities. Kluwer Academic, Dordrecht
Duffie JA, Beckman WA (1975) Solar energy thermal processes. Wiley, New York
Farmer WM (2001) The atmospheric filter, vol 1. Sources. JCD, Winter Park
Farmer WM (2001) The atmospheric filter, vol 2. Effects. JCD, Winter Park
Fleagle RG, Businger JA (1980) An introduction to atmospheric physics, 2nd edn. International Geophysics Series Vol 25, Academic, New York
Hulstrom RL (1989) Solar resources. MIT Press, Cambridge
Kondratyev KY (1965) Radiation in the atmosphere. International Geophysics Series Vol 12, Academic, New York
Kreith F, Kreider JF (1978) Principles of solar engineering. McGraw Hill, Hemisphere
Kyle TG (1991) Atmospheric transmission. Pergamon, Oxford
Liou K (1980) An introduction to atmospheric radiation. International Geophysics Series Vol 26, Academic, New York
Martin CL, Goswami DY (2005) Solar energy pocket reference. James and James, Earthscan
McCluney R (1994) Introduction to radiometry and photometry. Artech House, Boston
Marshak A, Davis AB (2005) 3 D radiative transfer in cloudy atmospheres. Springer, Berlin
Osborn DE (1993) Selected papers on solar radiation and solar thermal systems. SPIE Milestones Series Vol MS 34 SPIE Optical Engineering Press. Bellingham, WA
Paltridge GW, Platt CMR (1976) Radiative processes in meteorology and climatology. Elsevier, Amsterdam
Sayigh AAM (1977) Solar energy engineering. Academic, New York
Sen Z (2008) Solar energy fundamentals and modeling techniques: atmosphere, environment, climate change and renewable energy. Springer, Berlin
Spiro IJ (1990) Selected papers on radiometry. SPIE Milestones Series Vol MS 14, SPIE Optical Engineering Press. Bellingham, WA
Thomas GE, Stamnes K (1999) Radiative transfer in the atmosphere and ocean. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge
White OR (1977) The solar output and its variation. Colorado Associated University Press, Boulder
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2013 Springer Science+Business Media New York
About this entry
Cite this entry
Myers, D.R. (2013). Solar Radiation for Solar Energy Utilization . In: Richter, C., Lincot, D., Gueymard, C.A. (eds) Solar Energy. Springer, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-5806-7_450
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-5806-7_450
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, New York, NY
Print ISBN: 978-1-4614-5805-0
Online ISBN: 978-1-4614-5806-7
eBook Packages: EnergyReference Module Computer Science and Engineering