Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Edible Films and Coatings: Why, What, and How?

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Edible Films and Coatings for Food Applications

Abstract

Edible films and coatings, such as wax on various fruits, have been used for centuries to prevent loss of moisture and to create a shiny fruit surface for aesthetic purposes. These practices were accepted long before their associated chemistries were understood, and are still carried out in the present day. The term, edible film, has been related to food applications only in the past 50 years. One semi-sarcastic tale was that spies’ instructions were written on edible films, so that in the off-chance they were captured, they could easily destroy their secrets by eating them. In most cases, the terms film and coating are used interchangeably to indicate that the surface of a food is covered by relatively thin layer of material of certain composition. However, a film is occasionally differentiated from a coating by the notion that it is a stand-alone wrapping material, whereas a coating is applied and formed directly on food surface itself. As recently as 1967, edible films had very little commercial use, and were limited mostly to wax layers on fruits. During intervening years, a significant business grew out of this concept (i.e., in 1986, there were little more than ten companies offering such products, while by 1996, numbers grew to 600 companies). Today, edible film use has expanded rapidly for retaining quality of a wide variety of foods, with total annual revenue exceeding $100 million.

Why do we need edible films? Most food consumed comes directly from nature, where many of them can be eaten immediately as we take them from the tree, vine or ground. However, with increased transportation distribution systems, storage needs, and advent of ever larger supermarkets and warehouse stores, foods are not consumed just in the orchard, on the field, in the farmhouse, or close to processing facilities. It takes considerable time for a food product to reach the table of the consumer. During time-consuming steps involved in handling, storage and transportation, products start to dehydrate, deteriorate, and lose appearance, flavor and nutritional value. If no special protection is provided, damage can occur within hours or days, even if this damage is not immediately visible.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 84.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 109.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 109.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Notes

  1. 1.

    http://www.am-fe.ift.org/cms/?pid=1000355

  2. 2.

    http://www.cfsan.fda.gov/~dms/grasguid.html

References

  • Allen L, Nelson AI, Steinberg MP, McGill JN (1963) Edible carbohydrate food coatings II. Evaluation of fresh meat products. Food Technol. 17: 1442–1448

    Google Scholar 

  • Banker GS (1966) Film coating theory and practice. J. Pharm. Sci. 55: 81–89

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Becker R, Gray GM (1992) Evaluation of a water jet cutting system for slicing potatoes. J. Food Sci. 57(1): 132–137

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Beckwith AC, Wall JS (1966) Reduction and reoxidation of wheat glutenin. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 130: 155–162

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Biquet B, Guilbert S (1986) Relative diffusivitives of water in model intermediate moisture foods. Lebensm. Wis. Technol. Food Sci. Technol. 19: 208–214

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Biquet B, Labuza TP (1988) Evaluation of moisture permeability characteristics of chocolate films as an edible moisture barrier. J. Food Sci. 53: 989–998

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bolin HR, Huxsoll CC (1991) Control of minimally processed carrot (Daucus carota) Surface discoloration caused by abrasion peeling. J. Food Sci. 56: 416–418

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bolin HR, Nury FS, Finkle BJ (1964) An improved process for preservation of fresh peeled apples. Bakers Dig. 38(3): 46–48

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cagri A, Ustonol Z Ryser ET (2004) Review: Antimicrobial edible films and coatings. J. Food Prot. 67(4): 833–848

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cairns JA, Owing CR, Paine FA (1974) Packaging for climate protection. The Institute of Packaging, Newnes-Butterworth, London, England

    Google Scholar 

  • Camirand WM, Forrey RR, Popper K, Boyle FP, Stanley WL (1968) Dehydration of membrane coated foods by osmosis. J. Sci. Food Agric. 19: 472–474

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Camirand WM, Krochta JM, Pavlath AE, Cole ME (1992) Properties of some edible carbohydrate polymer coatings for potential use in osmotic dehydration. Carbohydr polym. 13: 39–49

    Google Scholar 

  • Chen C, Trezza TA, Wong DWS, Camirand WM, Pavlath AE (1999) Methods of preserving fresh fruits and produce thereof. U.S. Patent. 5, 939, 117

    Google Scholar 

  • Contreras-Medellin R, Labuza TP (1981) Prediction of moisture protection requirements for foods. Cereal Food World. 26(7): 335–340

    Google Scholar 

  • Cosler HB (1957) Methods of producing zein coated confectionery. U.S. Patent, 2, 791, 509

    Google Scholar 

  • Darmadji P, Izumimoto (1994) Effect of chitosan in meat preservation. Meat Sci. 38: 243–254

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Das KP, Kinsella JE (1990) Stability of food emulsions: Physicochemical role of protein and non-protein emulsifiers. Adv. Food Nutr. Res. 34: 81–201

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Davies E (1987) Plant responses to wounding. In the Biochemistry of Plants Vol. 12, D. D. Davies (ed.), P.K. Stumpf. and E.E. Conn (eds-in-chief) Academic, New York, NY, Chapter 7, pp 243–264

    Google Scholar 

  • Debeaufort F, Martin-Polo M, Voilley A (1993) Polarity, homogeneity and structure affect water vapor permeability of model edible films. J. Food Sci. 58: 426–429, 434

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Debeaufort F, Quezada-Gallo JA, Voilley A (1998) Edible films and coatings: tomorrow’s packaging: A review. Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr. 38: 299–313

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Delong CF, Shepherd TH (1972) Produce coating. U.S. Patent 3, 669, 691

    Google Scholar 

  • Eaks IL (1980) Effect of chilling on respirations and volatiles of California lemon fruit. J. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 105: 865–869

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Eaks IL, Ludi WA (1960) Effects of temperature, washing and waxing on the composition of internal atmosphere of orange fruits. Proc. Am. Soc. Hortic. Sci. 76: 220–228

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Feeney RD, Hararalampu SG, Gross A (1992) Method of collating food with edible oil barrier film and product thereof. U.S. Patent 5, 126, 152

    Google Scholar 

  • Fennema OR (1993) Frozen foods: challenges of the future. Food Aust. 45(8): 374–380

    Google Scholar 

  • Feuge RO, Vicknair EJ, Lovegren NV (1953) Modification of vegetable oils XIII. Some additional properties of acetostearin products. JAOCS. 30: 283–290

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Fox RC (1958) The relationship of wax crystal structure to water vapor transmission rate of wax films. TAPPI. 41(6): 283–289

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gennadios A Weller CL, Testin RF (1993) Modification of physical and barrier properties of edible wheat gluten-based films. Cereal Chem. 70(4): 426–429

    Google Scholar 

  • Gennadios A, Hanna MA, Kurth LB (1997) Application of edible coatings on meats, poultry and seafoods: A review. Lebensm. Wiss. Technol. 30: 337–350

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Glicksman M (1982) Functional properties. In Food Hydrocolloids, M. Glicksman, (ed.) CRC, Boca Raton, FL Vol. 1 p. 47

    Google Scholar 

  • Glicksman M (1983) Red seaweed extracts. In Food Hydrocolloids, M. Glicksman, (ed.) CRC, Boca Raton, FL Vol. 2 p. 73

    Google Scholar 

  • Gontard N, Guilbert S (1994) Biopackaging technology and properties of edible and/or biodegradable material of agricultural origin. In Food packaging and preservations. M. Mathlouthi, (ed.) Blackie Academic and Professional, Glasgow, pp 159–181

    Google Scholar 

  • Gontard N, Guilbert S, Cuq JL (1992) Edible wheat gluten films: Influence of the main process variables on film properties using response surface methodology, J. Food Sci. 57: 190–199

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gontard N, Thibault R, Cuq B, Guilbert S (1996) Influence of relative humidity and film composition on oxygen and carbon dioxide permeabilities of edible films. J. Agric. Food Chem. 44(4): 1064–1068

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Grant GT, Morris ER, Rees DA, Smith PJC, Thom D (1973) Biological interactions between polysaccharides and divalent cations. The eggbox model. FEBS Lett. 32: 195–198

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Greener I (1992) Physical Properties of Edible Films and Their Components. Ph.D. dissertation, University of Wisconsin

    Google Scholar 

  • Griesbach H (1987) New insights into ecological role of secondary plant metabolites. Comments Agric. Food Chem. 1: 27–45

    Google Scholar 

  • Guilbert S (1986) Technology and application of edible protective films, In Food Packaging and Preservation: Theory and Practice, M. Mathlouthi, (ed.) Elsevier Applied Science Publishing Co., London, UK, pp 371–399

    Google Scholar 

  • Guilbert S (1988) Use of superficial edible layer to protect intermediate moisture foods: Application to the protection of tropical fruits dehydrated by osmosis. In Food Preservation by Moisture Control, C.C. Seaow, (ed.) Elsevier Applied Science Publishers Ltd. Essex, England, pp 199–219

    Google Scholar 

  • Haard NF, Cody M (1978) Stress metabolites in postharvest fruits and vegetables role of ethylene. In Postharvest Biology and Biotechnology, H.O. Huttin and M. Milner (eds.) Food and Nutrition Press Inc, Westport, CT.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hagenmaier RD, Baker RA (1997) Edible coatings from morpholine-free wax microemulsions. J. Agric. Food Chem. 45: 349–352

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hagenmaier RD, Shaw PE (1990) Moisture permeability of edible films made with fatty acid and (hydroxypropyl) methylcellulose. J. Agric. Food Chem. 38: 1799–1803

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hagenmaier RD, Shaw PE (1991) Permeability of coatings made with emulsified polyethylene wax. J. Agric. Food Chem. 39: 1705–1708

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hallman GJ, Nisperos-Carriedo MO, Baldwin EA, Campbell CA (1994) Mortality of Carribean fruit fly (Diptera: Tephritidae) immatures in coated fruits. J. Econ. Entomol. 87: 752–757

    Google Scholar 

  • Hardenburg RE (1967) Wax related coatings for horticultural products. A bibliography. Agricultural Research Service Bulletin 51–15, United States Department of Agriculture, Washington, DC

    Google Scholar 

  • Havard C, Harmony MX (1869) Improved process for preserving meat, fowls, fish etc. U.S. Patent 90, 944

    Google Scholar 

  • Hershko V, Klein E, Nuvissovitch A (1996) Relationships between edible coating and garlic skin J. Food Sci. 61: 769–777

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hyodo H, Kuroda H, Yang SF (1978) Induction of phenylalanine ammonia-lyase and increase in phenolics in lettuce leaves in relation to the development of russet spotting caused by ethylene. Plant Physiol. 62: 31–35

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ismail M (1989) Cold treatment: a successful quarantine method for Florida grapefruit shipped to Japan. Packinghouse Newsletter No. 158: 1–2

    Google Scholar 

  • Kabara JJ, Ecklund T (1991) Organic acids and esters. In Food Preservatives, N.J. Russell and G.W. Gould (eds.) Blackie and Son, Glasgow, pp 21

    Google Scholar 

  • Kader AA (1986) Biochemical and physiological basis for effects of controlled and modified atmospheres on fruits and vegetable. Food Technol. 40: 99–104

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kamper SL, Fennema OR (1984) Water vapor permeability of an edible, fatty acid, bilayer film. J. Food Sci. 49: 1482–1485

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kanig JL, Goodman H (1962) Evaluative procedures for film-forming materials used in pharmaceutical applications. J. Pharm. Sci. 51(1): 77–83

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Katz EE, Labuza TP (1981) Effect of water activity on the sensory crispness and mechanical deformation of snack food products. J. Food Sci. 46: 403

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kester JJ, Fennema OR (1986) Edible films and coatings: A review. Food Technol. 39: 47

    Google Scholar 

  • Kester JJ, Fennema OR (1989a) The influence of polymorphic form on oxygen and water vapor transmission through lipid films. JAOCS. 66(8): 1147–1153

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kester JJ, Fennema OR (1989b) Tempering influence on oxygen nd water vapor transmission through a stearyl alcohol film. JAOCS. 66(8): 1154–1157

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kester JJ, Fenema OR (1989c) An edible film of lipids and cellulose ether: barrier properties to moisture transmission and structural evaluation. J Food Sci. 54: 1383–1389

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kester JJ, Bernhardy JJ, Elsen J, Letton J, Fox M (1990) Polyol polyesters as protective moisture barrier for foods. U.S. Patent 4, 960, 600

    Google Scholar 

  • Koelsch CM, Labuza TP (1992) Functional, physiological and morphological properties of methyl cellulose and fatty acid-based edible barriers. Lebensm Wiss Technol. 25: 404–411

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Krochta JM (1992) Control of mass transfer in foods with edible coatings and films. In Advances in Food Engineering, W.E. Speiss and H. Schubert (eds.) Elsevier, Essex, England

    Google Scholar 

  • Krochta JM, Hudson JS, Camirand WM, Pavlath AE (1988) Edible films for light processed fruits and vegetables, Paper Presented at International Winter Meeting of the American Society of Agricultural Engineers, Chicago, IL

    Google Scholar 

  • Krochta JM, Baldwin EA, Nisperos-Carriedo MO (1994) Edible Coatings and Films to Improve Food Quality, Technomic Publ. Co., Lancaster, PA, pp 1–379

    Google Scholar 

  • Labuza TP (1980) The effect of water activity on reaction kinetics of food deterioration. Food Technol. 34(4): 36–40

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Labuza TP (1984) Moisture Sorption: Practical Aspects of Isotherm Measurement and Use American Association of Cereal Chemists, St. Paul, MN

    Google Scholar 

  • LaMer VK, Healy TW, Aylmore LAG (1964) The transport of water through monolayers of long-chain n-paraffinic alcohols. J. Coll. Sci. 19: 673

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Landman W, Lovegren NV, Feuge RD (1960) Permeability of some fat products moisture. JAOCS. 37: 1–4

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lazarus CR, West RL, Oblinger JJ, Palmer AZ (1976) Evaluation of calcium alginate coating and protective plastic wrapping for the control of lamb carcass shrinkage. J. Food Sci. 41: 639–642

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mark AM, Roth WB, Mehltretter CL, Rist CE (1966) Oxygen permeability of amylomaize starch films. Food Technol. 20: 75

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mate JI, Saltweil ME, Krochta JM (1996) Peanut and walnut rancidity: effects of oxygen concentration and relative humidity J. Food Sci. 61: 465–472

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Martin-Polo M, Mauguin C, Voilley A (1992) Hydrophobic films and their efficiency against moisture transfer. I. Influence of the film preparation technique. J. Agric. Food Chem. 40: 407–412

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Maxcy RB (1982) Fate of microbial contaminants in lettuce juice. J. Food Protection. 45: 335–339

    Google Scholar 

  • Mazza G, Qi H (1991) Control after-cooking darkening in potatoes with edible film-forming products and calcium chloride. J. Agric. Food Chem. 39(10): 2163–2166

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • McHugh TH, Krochta J (1994) Milk-protein-based edible films and coatings. Food Technol. 48(1): 97–103

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Meyers MA (1994) Use of edible films to prolong chewing gum shelf-life. U.S. Patent 5, 286, 502

    Google Scholar 

  • Morillon V, Debeaufort F, Blond G, Capelle M, Voilley A (2002) Factors affecting the moisture permeability of lipid-based edible films: A review. Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition. 42(1): 67–89

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Murray DG, Luft L (1973) Low D.E. Corn starch hydrolysates. Food Technol. 27(3): 32–39

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Nelson K, Fennema OR (1991) Methylcellulose films to prevent lipid migration in confectionery products. J. Food Sci. 56(2): 504–508

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Nippon Shinyuku Co. Ltd. (1984) Fatty acid acylated casein. Japan Kokai Tokyo Koho, Japan Patent 59, 155, 396

    Google Scholar 

  • Okamoto S (1978) Factors affecting protein film formation. Cereal Foods World. 23: 256–262

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Pallos FM, Robertson GH, Pavlath AE, Orts WJ (2006) Thermoformed wheat gluten biopolymers. J. Agric. Food Chem. 54: 349–352

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Park JW, Testin RF, Park HJ, Vergano PJ, Weller CI (1994) Fatty acid concentration effect on tensile strength, elongation and water vapor permeability of laminated edible films. J. Food Sci. 59: 916–919

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Paulinka F (1986) Quality consideration in the selection of confectionery fats. The Manufacturing Confectionerie (May) 75–81

    Google Scholar 

  • Pavlath AE, Wong DSW, Kumosinski TF (1993) New Coatings for cut fruits and vegetables. CHEMTECH. 23(2): 36–40

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Pavlath AE, Wong DSW, Hudson JS, Robertson GH (1996) Edible films for the extension of shelf life of lightly processed agricultural products. ACS Symposium, Series No. 647. G. Fuller, T.A. McKeon and D.D. Bills (eds.) Chapter 8, pp 107–110

    Google Scholar 

  • Pavlath AE, Gossett C, Camirand W, Robertson GH (1999a) Ionomeric films of alginic acid, J. Food Sci. 64(1): 61–63

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Pavlath AE, Voisin A, Robertson GH (1999b) Pectin-based biodegradable water insoluble films. Macromol. Symp. 140: 106–113

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pickard JF, Rees JE, Elworthy PH (1972) Water vapour permeability of pored and sprayed polymer films. J. Pharm. Pharmac. 24(Suppl): 39P

    Google Scholar 

  • Platenius H (1939) Wax emulsions for vegetables. Cornell Univ. Agric. Exp. Sta. Bull. 723: 43

    Google Scholar 

  • Polanski S (1993) Frying food with reduced frying medium uptake – by cooking food to remove water applying coating of swollen dispersion containing natural edible polymer, drying and frying. U.S. Patent 5, 232, 721

    Google Scholar 

  • Reading S, Spring M (1984) The effects of binder film characteristics on granule and tablet properties. J. Pharm. Pharmacol. 36: 421–426

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rockland LB, Nishi SK (1980) Influence of water activity on food product quality and stability. Food Technol. 34(4): 42

    Google Scholar 

  • Rogers CE (1985) Permeation of gases and vapors in polymers. In Polymer Permeability, J. Comyn (ed.) Elsevier Applied Science Publisher, New York, NY, pp 11–73

    Google Scholar 

  • Roth T, Loncin M (1984) Superficial activity of water. In Engineering and Food. Vol. 1. B.M. McKenna (ed.) Elsevier Applied sciences Publishers, London, England, pp 433

    Google Scholar 

  • Roth T, Loncin M (1985) Fundamentals of diffusion of water and rate of approach of equilibrium Aw. In Properties of Water in Foods in Relation to Quality and Stability, D. Simatos, JL. Multon (eds.) Martinus Nijhoff Publishing, Dordrecht, The Netherlands, pp. 331

    Google Scholar 

  • Schofield JD, Bottomley RC, Timms MF, Booth MR (1983) The effect of heat on wheat gluten and the involvement of sulphhydryl-disulphide interchange reactions, J. Cereal Sci. 1: 241–253

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Shaw CP, Secrist JL, Tuomy JM (1980) Method of extending the storage life in the frozen state of precooked foods and products thereof. U.S. Patent 4, 196, 219

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Shewfelt RL (1987) Quality of minimally processed fruits and vegetables. J. Food Quality. 10: 143–156

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Talbot G (1994) Minimisation of moisture migration in food systems, Reprint from F.I.E. Paris

    Google Scholar 

  • Tomasul PM, Craig JC Jr., Boswell T (1997) A continuous process for casein production using high-pressure carbon dioxide. J. Food Eng. 33(3): 405–419

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Troller JA (1980) Influences of water activity on microorganisms in foods. Food Technol. 34 (5): 7

    Google Scholar 

  • Uritani I, Asahi T (1980) Respiration and related metabolic activity in wounded and infected tissues. In Biochemistry of Plants, Vol. 2. PK Stumpf and EE Conn (eds.) Academic, Orlando, FL, Chapter 11, pp 463–485

    Google Scholar 

  • Williams SK, Oblinger JL, West RL (1978) Evaluation of calcium alginate film for use on beef cuts. J. Food Sci. 43: 292–301

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wong DWS, Gastineau FA,Gregorski KS, Tillin SJ, Pavlath AE (1992) Chitosan-lipid films: Microstructure and surface energy. J. Agric. Food Chem. 40(4): 540–544

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wong DWS, Camirand WM, Pavlath AE (1994a) Development of edible coatings for minimally processed fruits and vegetables. In Edible Coatings and films to improve Food Quality, Lancaster, PA., Technomic Publ. Co. Chapter 3, 65–88

    Google Scholar 

  • Wong DWS, Tillin SJ, Hudson JS, Pavlath AE (1994b) Gas exchange in cut apples with bilayer coatings. J. Agric. Food Chem. 42(10): 2278–2285

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wong DWS, Gregorski KS, Hudson JS, Pavlath AE (1996) Calcium alginate films: thermal properties and permeability to sorbate and ascorbate. J. Food Sci. 61(2): 337–341

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Western Regional Research Center, ARS, USDA, Albany, CA, USA

    Attila E. Pavlath & William Orts

Authors
  1. Attila E. Pavlath
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. William Orts
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Attila E. Pavlath .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

    Rights and permissions

    Reprints and permissions

    Copyright information

    © 2009 Springer Science+Business Media, LLC

    About this chapter

    Cite this chapter

    Pavlath, A.E., Orts, W. (2009). Edible Films and Coatings: Why, What, and How?. In: Huber, K., Embuscado, M. (eds) Edible Films and Coatings for Food Applications. Springer, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-92824-1_1

    Download citation

    Publish with us

    Policies and ethics

    Search

    Navigation