Abstract
The goals of glaucoma therapy for the patient and the physician are ultimately the same ones, but they are often approached from very different perspectives. Most patients with glaucoma visit their ophthalmologist on a regular basis because they understand that they have a potentially blinding disease that requires compliance with examinations and therapy. The patient’s goal is to preserve the vision manifested in his or her visual field. While the treating ophthalmologist’s overriding goal also is to preserve visual function for the patient, the doctor’s immediate goal is to preserve those physiological structures whose anatomy underlies the basis for the ability to see. In treating the patient, the ophthalmologist needs to take into account new understandings of risk factors as well as new concepts, such as those that suggest that aging is a major risk factor for glaucoma.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
References
Higginbotham EJ. Initial treatment for open-angle glaucoma-medical, laser or surgical? Medication is the treatment of choice for chronic open-angle glaucoma. Arch Ophthalmol. 1998;116(2):239–240.
Hitchings R. Initial treatment for open-angle glaucoma-medical, laser, or surgical? Surgery is the treatment of choice for open-angle glaucoma. Arch Ophthalmol. 1998;116(2):241–242.
Jampel HD. Initial treatment for open-angle glaucoma-medical, laser, or surgical? Laser trabeculoplasty is the treatment of choice for chronic open-angle glaucoma. Arch Ophthalmol. 1998;116(2):240–241.
The Glaucoma Laser Trial. I. Acute effects of argon laser trabeculoplasty on intraocular pressure. Glaucoma Laser Trial Research Group. Arch Ophthalmol. 1989;107(8):1135–1142.
The Glaucoma Laser Trial (GLT) and glaucoma laser trial follow-up study: 7. Results. Glaucoma Laser Trial Research Group. Am J Ophthalmol. 1995;120(6):718–731.
McIlraith I, Strasfeld M, Colev G, Hutnik CM. Selective laser trabeculoplasty as initial and adjunctive treatment for open-angle glaucoma. J Glaucoma. 2006;15(2):124–130.
Feiner L, Piltz-Seymour JR. Collaborative Initial Glaucoma Treatment Study: a summary of results to date. Curr Opin Ophthalmol. 2003;14(2):106–111.
Baudouin C. Side effects of antiglaucomatous drugs on the ocular surface. Curr Opin Ophthalmol. 1996;7(2):80–86.
Baudouin C. Mechanisms of failure in glaucoma filtering surgery: a consequence of antiglaucomatous drugs? Int J Clin Pharmacol Res. 1996;16(1):29–41.
Baudouin C, Pisella PJ, Fillacier K, et al. Ocular surface inflammatory changes induced by topical antiglaucoma drugs: human and animal studies. Ophthalmology. 1999;106(3):556–563.
Kahook MY, Noecker RJ. Comparison of corneal and conjunctival changes after dosing of travoprost preserved with sofZia, latanoprost with 0.02% benzalkonium chloride, and preservative-free artificial tears. Cornea. 2008;27(3):339–343.
Neelakantan A, Vaishnav HD, Iyer SA, Sherwood MB. Is addition of a third or fourth antiglaucoma medication effective? J Glaucoma. 2004;13(2):130–136.
Asrani S, Zeimer R, Wilensky J, Gieser D, Vitale S, Lindenmuth K. Large diurnal fluctuations in intraocular pressure are an independent risk factor in patients with glaucoma. J Glaucoma. 2000;9(2):134–142.
Bengtsson B, Leske MC, Hyman L, Heijl A. Fluctuation of intraocular pressure and glaucoma progression in the early manifest glaucoma trial. Ophthalmology. 2007;114(2):205–209.
Caprioli J, Coleman AL. Intraocular pressure fluctuation a risk factor for visual field progression at low intraocular pressures in the advanced glaucoma intervention study. Ophthalmology. 2008;115(7):1123-1129 e1123.
Hughes E, Spry P, Diamond J. 24-hour monitoring of intraocular pressure in glaucoma management: a retrospective review. J Glaucoma. 2003;12(3):232–236.
Medeiros FA, Weinreb RN, Zangwill LM, et al. Long-term intraocular pressure fluctuations and risk of conversion from ocular hypertension to glaucoma. Ophthalmology. 2008;115(6):934–940.
Wilson MR, Gaasterland D. Translating research into practice: controlled clinical trials and their influence on glaucoma management. J Glaucoma. 1996;5(2):139–146.
Anderson DR. Glaucoma: the damage caused by pressure. XLVI Edward Jackson memorial lecture. Am J Ophthalmol. 1989;108(5):485–495.
Weinreb RN. Lowering intraocular pressure to minimize glaucoma damage. J Glaucoma. 2001;10(5 Suppl 1):S76-S77.
Fremont AM, Lee PP, Mangione CM, et al. Patterns of care for open-angle glaucoma in managed care. Arch Ophthalmol. 2003;121(6):777–783.
Craven ER. Risk management issues in glaucoma: diagnosis and treatment. Surv Ophthalmol. 1996;40(6):459–462.
Classe JG. Glaucoma – a clinicolegal review. J Am Optom Assoc. 1997;68(6):389–394.
Palmberg P. Evidence-based target pressures: how to choose and achieve them. Int Ophthalmol Clin. 2004;44(2):1–14.
Palmberg P. How clinical trial results are changing our thinking about target pressures. Curr Opin Ophthalmol. 2002;13(2):85–88.
Coleman AL, Baerveldt G, Bournias TE, eds. Evidence-based management of glaucoma: recommendations of an expert panel. In: Glaucoma Disease Management Guide. Montvale, NJ: Thomson-PDR; 2003.
Nakakura S, Nomura Y, Ataka S, Shiraki K. Relation between office intraocular pressure and 24-hour intraocular pressure in patients with primary open-angle glaucoma treated with a combination of topical antiglaucoma eye drops. J Glaucoma. 2007;16(2):201–204.
Mosaed S, Liu JH, Weinreb RN. Correlation between office and peak nocturnal intraocular pressures in healthy subjects and glaucoma patients. Am J Ophthalmol. 2005;139(2):320–324.
Kremmer S, Niederdraing N, Ayertey HD, Steuhl KP, Selbach JM. Obstructive sleep apnea syndrome, normal tension glaucoma, and nCPAP therapy – a short note. Sleep. 2003;26(2):161–162.
Marcus DM, Costarides AP, Gokhale P, et al. Sleep disorders: a risk factor for normal-tension glaucoma? J Glaucoma. 2001;10(3):177–183.
Mojon DS, Hess CW, Goldblum D, et al. Normal-tension glaucoma is associated with sleep apnea syndrome. Ophthalmologica. 2002;216(3):180–184.
Mojon DS, Hess CW, Goldblum D, Bohnke M, Korner F, Mathis J. Primary open-angle glaucoma is associated with sleep apnea syndrome. Ophthalmologica. 2000;214(2):115–118.
Onen SH, Mouriaux F, Berramdane L, Dascotte JC, Kulik JF, Rouland JF. High prevalence of sleep-disordered breathing in patients with primary open-angle glaucoma. Acta Ophthalmol Scand. 2000;78(6):638–641.
Pearson J. Glaucoma in patients with sleep apnea. Ophthalmology. 2000;107(5):816–817.
Civan MM, Macknight AD. The ins and outs of aqueous humour secretion. Exp Eye Res. 2004;78(3):625–631.
Macknight AD, McLaughlin CW, Peart D, Purves RD, Carre DA, Civan MM. Formation of the aqueous humor. Clin Exp Pharmacol Physiol. 2000;27(1-2):100–106.
Fautsch MP, Johnson DH. Aqueous humor outflow: what do we know? Where will it lead us? Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2006;47(10):4181–4187.
Reiss GR, Lee DA, Topper JE, Brubaker RF. Aqueous humor flow during sleep. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 1984;25(6):776–778.
Diestelhorst M, Kriegistein GK. Does aqueous humor secretion decrease with age? Int Ophthalmol. 1992;16(4–5):305–309.
Lee PS, H and Lin, S. Medical Therapy of Glaucoma: Mechanisms of Action and Rational Selection of Therapies American Academy of Ophthalmology, Annual Meeting; 2007.
Netland PA, American Academy of Ophthalmology. Glaucoma Medical Therapy : Principles and Management. 2nd ed. New York: Oxford University Press In cooperation with the American Academy of Ophthalmology; 2008.
Leung EW, Medeiros FA, Weinreb RN. Prevalence of ocular surface disease in glaucoma patients. J Glaucoma. 2008;17(5):350–355.
Noecker R. Effects of common ophthalmic preservatives on ocular health. Adv Ther. 2001;18(5):205–215.
Baudouin C. The pathology of dry eye. Surv Ophthalmol. 2001;45(Suppl 2):S211-S220.
Mundorf T, Wilcox KA, Ousler GW 3rd, Welch D, Abelson MB. Evaluation of the comfort of Alphagan P compared with Alphagan in irritated eyes. Adv Ther. 2003;20(6):329–336.
Katz LJ. Twelve-month evaluation of brimonidine-purite versus brimonidine in patients with glaucoma or ocular hypertension. J Glaucoma. 2002;11(2):119–126.
Lewis RA, Katz GJ, Weiss MJ, et al. Travoprost 0.004% with and without benzalkonium chloride: a comparison of safety and efficacy. J Glaucoma. 2007;16(1):98–103.
Garzia R. An advance in ophthalmic pharmacology. The use of the epinephrine pro-drug dipivalyl epinephrine in the treatment of glaucoma. J Am Optom Assoc. 1982;53(9):727–730.
Krauss AH, Woodward DF. Update on the mechanism of action of bimatoprost: a review and discussion of new evidence. Surv Ophthalmol. 2004;49(Suppl 1):S5-S11.
Camras CB, Sharif NA, Wax MB, Stjernschantz J. Bimatoprost, the prodrug of a prostaglandin analogue. Br J Ophthalmol. 2008;92(6):862-863. Author reply 863–864.
Maxey KM, Johnson JL, LaBrecque J. The hydrolysis of bimatoprost in corneal tissue generates a potent prostanoid FP receptor agonist. Surv Ophthalmol. 2002;47(Suppl 1):S34-S40.
Zimmerman TJ, Kooner KS, Kandarakis AS, Ziegler LP. Improving the therapeutic index of topically applied ocular drugs. Arch Ophthalmol. 1984;102(4):551–553.
Ariturk N, Oge I, Erkan D, Sullu Y, Sahin M. The effects of nasolacrimal canal blockage on topical medications for glaucoma. Acta Ophthalmol Scand. 1996;74(4):411–413.
Ahlquist RP. A study of the adrenotropic receptors. Am J Physiol. 1948;153(3):586–600.
Esler M, Jennings G, Lambert G, Meredith I, Horne M, Eisenhofer G. Overflow of catecholamine neurotransmitters to the circulation: source, fate, and functions. Physiol Rev. 1990;70(4):963–985.
Goldstein DS. The Autonomic Nervous System in Health and Disease. New York: M. Dekker; 2001.
Eglen RM, Watson N. Selective muscarinic receptor agonists and antagonists. Pharmacol Toxicol. 1996;78(2):59–68.
QLT Plug Delivery I. A Safety Study of the Latanoprost Punctal Plug Delivery System (L-PPDS) in Subjects with Ocular Hypertension or Open Angle Glaucoma. http://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT00820300. Accessed 11 April 2009.
Robin AL, Clark AF, Covert DW, et al. Anterior juxtascleral delivery of anecortave acetate in eyes with primary open-angle glaucoma: a pilot investigation. Am J Ophthalmol. 2009;147(1):45–50.
Abelson M, Fink K. How to handle BAK. Rev Ophthalmol. 2002;9(12). Published Last Modified Date. Accessed Dated Accessed.
van der Valk R, Webers CA, Schouten JS, Zeegers MP, Hendrikse F, Prins MH. Intraocular pressure-lowering effects of all commonly used glaucoma drugs: a meta-analysis of randomized clinical trials. Ophthalmology. 2005;112(7):1177–1185.
Phillips CI, Howitt G, Rowlands DJ. Propranolol as ocular hypotensive agent. Br J Ophthalmol. 1967;51(4):222–226.
Katz IM, Hubbard WA, Getson AJ, Gould AL. Intraocular pressure decrease in normal volunteers following timolol ophthalmic solution. Invest Ophthalmol. 1976;15(6):489–492.
Stewart WC, Dubiner HB, Mundorf TK, et al. Effects of carteolol and timolol on plasma lipid profiles in older women with ocular hypertension or primary open-angle glaucoma. Am J Ophthalmol. 1999;127(2):142–147.
Chrisp P, Sorkin EM. Ocular carteolol. A review of its pharmacological properties, and therapeutic use in glaucoma and ocular hypertension. Drugs Aging. 1992;2(1):58–77.
Freedman SF, Freedman NJ, Shields MB, et al. Effects of ocular carteolol and timolol on plasma high-density lipoprotein cholesterol level. Am J Ophthalmol. 1993;116(5):600–611.
Kamalarajah S, Johnston PB. Bilateral anterior uveitis associated with 0.3% minims metipranolol. Eye. 1999;13(Pt 3a):380–381.
Fraunfelder FW, Rosenbaum JT. Drug-induced uveitis. Incidence, prevention and treatment. Drug Saf. 1997;17(3):197–207.
Patel NP, Patel KH, Moster MR, Spaeth GL. Metipranolol-associated nongranulomatous anterior uveitis. Am J Ophthalmol. 1997;123(6):843–844.
Watanabe TM, Hodes BL. Bilateral anterior uveitis associated with a brand of metipranolol. Arch Ophthalmol. 1997;115(3):421–422.
Beck RW, Moke P, Blair RC, Nissenbaum R. Uveitis associated with topical beta-blockers. Arch Ophthalmol. 1996;114(10):1181–1182.
Burvenich H. Metipranolol associated granulomatous anterior uveitis: not so uncommon as thought. Bull Soc Belge Ophtalmol. 1995;257:63-66. discussion 66–67.
O’Connor GR. Granulomatous uveitis and metipranolol. Br J Ophthalmol. 1993;77(8):536–538.
Akingbehin T, Villada JR. Metipranolol-associated granulomatous anterior uveitis. Br J Ophthalmol. 1991;75(9):519–523.
Mottow-Lippa LS, Lippa EA, Naidoff MA, Clementi R, Bjornsson T, Jones K..008% timolol ophthalmic solution. A minimal-effect dose in a normal volunteer model. Arch Ophthalmol. 1990;108(1):61–64.
Vuori ML, Ali-Melkkila T, Kaila T, Iisalo E, Saari KM. Beta 1- and beta 2-antagonist activity of topically applied betaxolol and timolol in the systemic circulation. Acta Ophthalmol (Copenh). 1993;71(5):682–685.
Vuori ML, Kaila T, Iisalo E, Saari KM. Concentrations and antagonist activity of topically applied betaxolol in aqueous humour. Acta Ophthalmol (Copenh). 1993;71(5):677–681.
Vuori ML, Ali-Melkkila T. The effect of betaxolol and timolol on postoperative intraocular pressure. Acta Ophthalmol (Copenh). 1993;71(4):458–462.
Vuori ML, Ali-Melkkila T, Kaila T, Iisalo E, Saari KM. Plasma and aqueous humour concentrations and systemic effects of topical betaxolol and timolol in man. Acta Ophthalmol (Copenh). 1993;71(2):201–206.
Gaul GR, Will NJ, Brubaker RF. Comparison of a noncardioselective beta-adrenoceptor blocker and a cardioselective blocker in reducing aqueous flow in humans. Arch Ophthalmol. 1989;107(9):1308–1311.
Stewart RH, Kimbrough RL, Ward RL. Betaxolol vs timolol. A six-month double-blind comparison. Arch Ophthalmol. 1986;104(1):46–48.
Long DA, Johns GE, Mullen RS, et al. Levobunolol and betaxolol. A double-masked controlled comparison of efficacy and safety in patients with elevated intraocular pressure. Ophthalmology. 1988;95(6):735–741.
Feghali JG, Kaufman PL, Radius RL, Mandell AI. A comparison of betaxolol and timolol in open angle glaucoma and ocular hypertension. Acta Ophthalmol (Copenh). 1988;66(2):180–186.
Zimmerman TJ, Kaufman HE. Timolol, dose response and duration of action. Arch Ophthalmol. 1977;95(4):605–607.
Liu JH, Kripke DF, Weinreb RN. Comparison of the nocturnal effects of once-daily timolol and latanoprost on intraocular pressure. Am J Ophthalmol. 2004;138(3):389–395.
Ericson LA. Twenty-four hourly variations in the inflow of the aqueous humour. Acta Ophthalmol (Copenh). 1958;36(3):xxx.
Topper JE, Brubaker RF. Effects of timolol, epinephrine, and acetazolamide on aqueous flow during sleep. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 1985;26(10):1315–1319.
Letchinger SL, Frohlichstein D, Glieser DK, et al. Can the concentration of timolol or the frequency of its administration be reduced? Ophthalmology. 1993;100(8):1259–1262.
Wandel T, Charap AD, Lewis RA, et al. Glaucoma treatment with once-daily levobunolol. Am J Ophthalmol. 1986;10(3):298–304.
Soll DB. Evaluation of timolol in chronic open-angle glaucoma. Once a day vs twice a day. Arch Ophthalmol. 1980;98(12):2178–2181.
Costagliola C, Parmeggiani F, Virgili G, et al. Circadian changes of intraocular pressure and ocular perfusion pressure after timolol or latanoprost in Caucasians with normal-tension glaucoma. Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol. 2008;246(3):389–396.
Quaranta L, Gandolfo F, Turano R, et al. Effects of topical hypotensive drugs on circadian IOP, blood pressure, and calculated diastolic ocular perfusion pressure in patients with glaucoma. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2006;47(7):2917–2923.
Fuchsjager-Mayrl G, Wally B, Rainer G, et al. Effect of dorzolamide and timolol on ocular blood flow in patients with primary open angle glaucoma and ocular hypertension. Br J Ophthalmol. 2005;89(10):1293–1297.
Fuchsjager-Mayrl G, Wally B, Georgopoulos M, et al. Ocular blood flow and systemic blood pressure in patients with primary open-angle glaucoma and ocular hypertension. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2004;45(3):834–839.
Arend O, Harris A, Wolter P, Remky A. Evaluation of retinal haemodynamics and retinal function after application of dorzolamide, timolol and latanoprost in newly diagnosed open-angle glaucoma patients. Acta Ophthalmol Scand. 2003;81(5):474–479.
Sato T, Muto T, Ishibashi Y, Roy S. Short-term effect of beta-adrenoreceptor blocking agents on ocular blood flow. Curr Eye Res. 2001;23(4):298–306.
Lubeck P, Orgul S, Gugleta K, Gherghel D, Gekkieva M, Flammer J. Effect of timolol on anterior optic nerve blood flow in patients with primary open-angle glaucoma as assessed by the Heidelberg retina flowmeter. J Glaucoma. 2001;10(1):13–17.
Sponsel WE, Mensah J, Kiel JW, et al. Effects of latanoprost and timolol-XE on hydrodynamics in the normal eye. Am J Ophthalmol. 2000;130(2):151–159.
Arend O, Harris A, Arend S, Remky A, Martin BJ. The acute effect of topical beta-adrenoreceptor blocking agents on retinal and optic nerve head circulation. Acta Ophthalmol Scand. 1998;76(1):43–49.
Greve EL, Rulo AH, Drance SM, Crichton AC, Mills RP, Hoyng PF. Reduced intraocular pressure and increased ocular perfusion pressure in normal tension glaucoma: a review of short-term studies with three dose regimens of latanoprost treatment. Surv Ophthalmol. 1997;41(Suppl 2):S89-S92.
Grunwald JE. Effect of timolol maleate on the retinal circulation of human eyes with ocular hypertension. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 1990;31(3):521–526.
Pillunat L, Stodtmeister R. Effect of different antiglaucomatous drugs on ocular perfusion pressures. J Ocul Pharmacol. 1988;4(3):231–242.
Pillunat LE, Stodtmeister R, Wilmanns I, Metzner D. Effect of timolol on optic nerve head autoregulation. Ophthalmologica. 1986;193(3):146–153.
Hayreh SS, Podhajsky P, Zimmerman MB. Beta-blocker eyedrops and nocturnal arterial hypotension. Am J Ophthalmol. 1999;128(3):301–309.
Hayreh SS, Podhajsky P, Zimmerman MB. Role of nocturnal arterial hypotension in optic nerve head ischemic disorders. Ophthalmologica. 1999;213(2):76–96.
Yarangumeli A, Kural G. Are there any benefits of Betoptic S (betaxolol HCl ophthalmic suspension) over other beta-blockers in the treatment of glaucoma? Expert Opin Pharmacother. 2004;5(5):1071–1081.
Dong Y, Ishikawa H, Wu Y, Shimizu K, Goseki T, Yoshitomi T. Effect and mechanism of betaxolol and timolol on vascular relaxation in isolated rabbit ciliary artery. Jpn J Ophthalmol. 2006;50(6):504–508.
Wood JP, Schmidt KG, Melena J, Chidlow G, Allmeier H, Osborne NN. The beta-adrenoceptor antagonists metipranolol and timolol are retinal neuroprotectants: comparison with betaxolol. Exp Eye Res. 2003;76(4):505–516.
Melena J, Stanton D, Osborne NN. Comparative effects of antiglaucoma drugs on voltage-dependent calcium channels. Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol. 2001;239(7):522–530.
Hirooka K, Kelly ME, Baldridge WH, Barnes S. Suppressive actions of betaxolol on ionic currents in retinal ganglion cells may explain its neuroprotective effects. Exp Eye Res. 2000;70(5):611–621.
Melena J, Wood JP, Osborne NN. Betaxolol, a beta1-adrenoceptor antagonist, has an affinity for L-type Ca2+ channels. Eur J Pharmacol. 1999;378(3):317–322.
Yu DY, Su EN, Cringle SJ, Alder VA, Yu PK, DeSantis L. Systemic and ocular vascular roles of the antiglaucoma agents beta-adrenergic antagonists and Ca2+ entry blockers. Surv Ophthalmol. 1999;43(Suppl 1):S214-S222.
Gross RL, Hensley SH, Gao F, Wu SM. Retinal ganglion cell dysfunction induced by hypoxia and glutamate: potential neuroprotective effects of beta-blockers. Surv Ophthalmol. 1999;43(Suppl 1):S162-S170.
Setoguchi M, Ohya Y, Abe I, Fujishima M. Inhibitory action of betaxolol, a beta 1-selective adrenoceptor antagonist, on voltage-dependent calcium channels in guinea-pig artery and vein. Br J Pharmacol. 1995;115(1):198–202.
Bessho H, Suzuki J, Tobe A. Vascular effects of betaxolol, a cardioselective beta-adrenoceptor antagonist, in isolated rat arteries. Jpn J Pharmacol. 1991;55(3):351–358.
Osborne NN, Ugarte M, Chao M, et al. Neuroprotection in relation to retinal ischemia and relevance to glaucoma. Surv Ophthalmol. 1999;43(Suppl 1):S102-S128.
Osborne NN, Wood JP, Chidlow G. Invited review: neuroprotective properties of certain beta-adrenoceptor antagonists used for the treatment of glaucoma. J Ocul Pharmacol Ther. 2005;21(3):175–181.
Rakofsky SI, Melamed S, Cohen JS, et al. A comparison of the ocular hypotensive efficacy of once-daily and twice-daily levobunolol treatment. Ophthalmology. 1989;96(1):8–11.
Derick RJ, Robin AL, Tielsch J, et al. Once-daily versus twice-daily levobunolol (0.5%) therapy. A crossover study. Ophthalmology. 1992;99(3):424–429.
McMahon CD, Shaffer RN, Hoskins HD Jr, Hetherington J Jr. Adverse effects experienced by patients taking timolol. Am J Ophthalmol. 1979;88(4):736–738.
Van Buskirk EM. Adverse reactions from timolol administration. Ophthalmology. 1980;87(5):447–450.
Weinreb RN, Caldwell DR, Goode SM, et al. A double-masked three-month comparison between 0.25% betaxolol suspension and 0.5% betaxolol ophthalmic solution. Am J Ophthalmol. 1990;110(2):189–192.
Van Buskirk EM. Corneal anesthesia after timolol maleate therapy. Am J Ophthalmol. 1979;88(4):739–743.
Packer M, Colucci WS, Sackner-Bernstein JD, et al. Double-blind, placebo-controlled study of the effects of carvedilol in patients with moderate to severe heart failure. The PRECISE Trial. Prospective Randomized Evaluation of Carvedilol on Symptoms and Exercise. Circulation. 1996;94(11):2793–2799.
Packer M, Bristow MR, Cohn JN, et al. The effect of carvedilol on morbidity and mortality in patients with chronic heart failure. U.S. Carvedilol Heart Failure Study Group. N Engl J Med. 1996;334(21):1349–1355.
Packer M. New concepts in the pathophysiology of heart failure: beneficial and deleterious interaction of endogenous haemodynamic and neurohormonal mechanisms. J Intern Med. 1996;239(4):327–333.
Packer M. Beta-blockade in the management of chronic heart failure. Another step in the conceptual evolution of a neurohormonal model of the disease. Eur Heart J. 1996;17 Suppl B:21–23.
Effect of metoprolol CR/XL in chronic heart failure: Metoprolol CR/XL Randomised Intervention Trial in Congestive Heart Failure (MERIT-HF). Lancet. 1999;353(9169):2001–2007.
Goldberg I, Adena MA. Co-prescribing of topical and systemic beta-blockers in patients with glaucoma: a quality use of medicine issue in Australian practice. Clin Experiment Ophthalmol. 2007;35(8):700–705.
Schuman JS. Effects of systemic beta-blocker therapy on the efficacy and safety of topical brimonidine and timolol. Brimonidine Study Groups 1 and 2. Ophthalmology. 2000;107(6):1171–1177.
Nelson WL, Fraunfelder FT, Sills JM, Arrowsmith JB, Kuritsky JN. Adverse respiratory and cardiovascular events attributed to timolol ophthalmic solution, 1978-1985. Am J Ophthalmol. 1986;102(5):606–611.
Diggory P, Cassels-Brown A, Vail A, Abbey LM, Hillman JS. Avoiding unsuspected respiratory side-effects of topical timolol with cardioselective or sympathomimetic agents. Lancet. 1995;345(8965):1604–1606.
Gullestad L, Dolva LO, Soyland E, Kjekshus J. Difference between beta-1-selective and non-selective beta-blockade during continuous and intermittent exercise. Clin Physiol. 1988;8(5):487–499.
Nieminen T, Lehtimaki T, Maenpaa J, Ropo A, Uusitalo H, Kahonen M. Ophthalmic timolol: plasma concentration and systemic cardiopulmonary effects. Scand J Clin Lab Invest. 2007;67(2):237–245.
Stewart WC, Stewart JA, Jackson AL. Cardiovascular effects of timolol maleate, brimonidine or brimonidine/timolol maleate in concomitant therapy. Acta Ophthalmol Scand. 2002;80(3):277–281.
Stewart WC, Stewart JA, Crockett S, Kubilus C, Brown A, Shams N. Comparison of the cardiovascular effects of unoprostone 0.15%, timolol 0.5% and placebo in healthy adults during exercise using a treadmill test. Acta Ophthalmol Scand. 2002;80(3):272–276.
Dickstein K, Aarsland T. Comparison of the effects of aqueous and gellan ophthalmic timolol on peak exercise performance in middle-aged men. Am J Ophthalmol. 1996;121(4):367–371.
Bartlett JD, Olivier M, Richardson T, Whitaker R Jr, Pensyl D, Wilson MR. Central nervous system and plasma lipid profiles associated with carteolol and timolol in postmenopausal black women. J Glaucoma. 1999;8(6):388–395.
Zimmerman T. Medicinal therapy for glaucoma. In: SG ETM, ed. The Glaucomas: Concepts and Fundamentals. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams and Wilkins; 2000:27–45.
Velde TM, Kaiser FE. Ophthalmic timolol treatment causing altered hypoglycemic response in a diabetic patient. Arch Intern Med. 1983;143(8):1627.
McGill JB, Bakris GL, Fonseca V, et al. beta-blocker use and diabetes symptom score: results from the GEMINI study. Diabetes Obes Metab. 2007;9(3):408–417.
Lama PJ. Systemic adverse effects of beta-adrenergic blockers: an evidence-based assessment. Am J Ophthalmol. 2002;134(5):749–760.
Hirsch IB, Boyle PJ, Craft S, Cryer PE. Higher glycemic thresholds for symptoms during beta-adrenergic blockade in IDDM. Diabetes. 1991;40(9):1177–1186.
Marker JC, Hirsch IB, Smith LJ, Parvin CA, Holloszy JO, Cryer PE. Catecholamines in prevention of hypoglycemia during exercise in humans. Am J Physiol. 1991;260(5 Pt 1):E705-E712.
Verschoor L, Wolffenbuttel BH, Weber RF. Beta-blockade and carbohydrate metabolism: theoretical aspects and clinical implications. J Cardiovasc Pharmacol. 1986;8(Suppl 11):S92-S95.
Mills GA, Horn JR. Beta-blockers and glucose control. Drug Intell Clin Pharm. 1985;19(4):246–251.
Ostman J. beta-adrenergic blockade and diabetes mellitus. A review. Acta Med Scand Suppl. 1983;672:69–77.
Lager I. Adrenergic blockade and hypoglycaemia. Acta Med Scand Suppl. 1983;672:63–67.
Schluter KJ, Kerp L. Beta-adrenoceptor blocking agents induce different counter-regulatory responses to insulin. J Pharmacol. 1983;14(Suppl 2):49–60.
Fraser T, Green D. Weathering the storm: beta-blockade and the potential for disaster in severe hyperthyroidism. Emerg Med (Fremantle). 2001;13(3):376–380.
Strube PJ. Thyroid storm during beta blockade. Anaesthesia. 1984;39(4):343–346.
Shenkman L, Podrid P, Lowenstein J. Hyperthyroidism after propranolol withdrawal. JAMA. 1977;238(3):237–239.
Pimstone BL. Beta-adrenergic blockade in thyrotoxicosis. S Afr Med J. 1969:Suppl:27–30.
Schweitzer P, Pivonka M, Zeman R, Gregorova J, Merstenova E. The acute hemodynamic changes of beta-adrenergic blockade in patients with thyrotoxicosis. Z Kreislaufforsch. 1968;57(12):1212–1220.
Katz IM, Berger ET. Effects of iris pigmentation on response of ocular pressure to timolol. Surv Ophthalmol. 1979;23(6):395–398.
Olateju SO, Ajayi AA. The lack of efficacy of topical beta-blockers, timolol and betaxolol on intraocular pressure in Nigerian healthy volunteers. Eye. 1999;13(Pt 6):758–763.
Soltau JB, Zimmerman TJ. Changing paradigms in the medical treatment of glaucoma. Surv Ophthalmol. 2002;47(Suppl 1):S2-S5.
Araie M, Takase M, Sakai Y, Ishii Y, Yokoyama Y, Kitagawa M. Beta-adrenergic blockers: ocular penetration and binding to the uveal pigment. Jpn J Ophthalmol. 1982;26(3):248–263.
Lyons JS, Krohn DL. Pilocarpine uptake by pigmented uveal tissue. Am J Ophthalmol. 1973;75(5):885–888.
Patil PM, Jacobowitz D. Unequal accumulation of adrenergic drugs by pigmented and nonpigmented iris. Am J Ophthalmol. 1974;78(3):470–477.
Dunham CN, Spaide RF, Dunham G. The contralateral reduction of intraocular pressure by timolol. Br J Ophthalmol. 1994;78(1):38–40.
Zimmerman TJ, Kaufman HE. Timolol. A beta-adrenergic blocking agent for the treatment of glaucoma. Arch Ophthalmol. 1977;95(4):601–604.
Radius RL, Diamond GR, Pollack IP, Langham ME. Timolol. A new drug for management of chronic simple glaucoma. Arch Ophthalmol. 1978;96(6):1003–1008.
Boger WP 3rd. Shortterm “escape” and longterm “drift.” The dissipation effects of the beta adrenergic blocking agents. Surv Ophthalmol. 1983;28 Suppl:235–242.
Lee PY, Podos SM, Serle JB, Camras CB, Severin CH. Intraocular pressure effects of multiple doses of drugs applied to glaucomatous monkey eyes. Arch Ophthalmol. 1987;105(2):249–252.
Zimmerman TJ, Canale P. Timolol – further observations. Ophthalmology. 1979;86(1):166–169.
Batterbury M, Harding SP, Wong D. Long-term drift and timolol therapy: possible role for pulsed therapy. Int Ophthalmol. 1992;16(4–5):321–324.
Gandolfi SA. Restoring sensitivity to timolol after long-term drift in primary open-angle glaucoma. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 1990;31(2):354–358.
Markowitz S, Morin JD. Timolol: a 4-year follow-up study. Can J Ophthalmol. 1983;18(6):278–280.
Steinert RF, Thomas JV, Boger WP 3rd. Long-term drift and continued efficacy after multiyear timolol therapy. Arch Ophthalmol. 1981;99(1):100–103.
Gandolfi SA, Vecchi M. Serial administration of adrenergic antagonist and agonist (“pulsatile therapy”) reduces the incidence of long-term drift to timolol in humans. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 1996;37(4):684–688.
Bengtsson B, Heijl A. Lack of long-term drift in timolol’s effectiveness in patients with ocular hypertension. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2001;42(12):2839–2842.
Bito LZ. A new approach to the medical management of glaucoma, from the bench to the clinic, and beyond: the Proctor Lecture. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2001;42(6):1126–1133.
Bito LZ, Stjernschantz J, Resul B, Miranda OC, Basu S. The ocular effects of prostaglandins and the therapeutic potential of a new PGF2 alpha analog, PhXA41 (latanoprost), for glaucoma management. J Lipid Mediat. 1993;6(1-3):535–543.
Camras CB, Siebold EC, Lustgarten JS, et al. Maintained reduction of intraocular pressure by prostaglandin F2 alpha-1-isopropyl ester applied in multiple doses in ocular hypertensive and glaucoma patients. Ophthalmology. 1989;96(9):1329-1336. Discussion 1336–1327.
Camras CB, Bito LZ. Reduction of intraocular pressure in normal and glaucomatous primate (Aotus trivirgatus) eyes by topically applied prostaglandin F2 alpha. Curr Eye Res. 1981;1(4):205–209.
Brubaker RF, Schoff EO, Nau CB, Carpenter SP, Chen K, Vandenburgh AM. Effects of AGN 192024, a new ocular hypotensive agent, on aqueous dynamics. Am J Ophthalmol. 2001;131(1):19–24.
Bahler CK, Howell KG, Hann CR, Fautsch MP, Johnson DH. Prostaglandins increase trabecular meshwork outflow facility in cultured human anterior segments. Am J Ophthalmol. 2008;145(1):114–119.
Lim KS, Nau CB, O’Byrne MM, et al. Mechanism of action of bimatoprost, latanoprost, and travoprost in healthy subjects. A crossover study. Ophthalmology. 2008;115(5):790-795 e794.
Dubiner HB, Sircy MD, Landry T, et al. Comparison of the diurnal ocular hypotensive efficacy of travoprost and latanoprost over a 44-hour period in patients with elevated intraocular pressure. Clin Ther. 2004;26(1):84–91.
Walters TR, DuBiner HB, Carpenter SP, Khan B, VanDenburgh AM. 24-Hour IOP control with once-daily bimatoprost, timolol gel-forming solution, or latanoprost: a 1-month, randomized, comparative clinical trial. Surv Ophthalmol. 2004;49(Suppl 1):S26-S35.
Lindsey JD, Kashiwagi K, Kashiwagi F, Weinreb RN. Prostaglandin action on ciliary smooth muscle extracellular matrix metabolism: implications for uveoscleral outflow. Surv Ophthalmol. 1997;41(Suppl 2):S53-S59.
Lutjen-Drecoll E, Tamm E. Morphological study of the anterior segment of cynomolgus monkey eyes following treatment with prostaglandin F2 alpha. Exp Eye Res. 1988;47(5):761–769.
Sagara T, Gaton DD, Lindsey JD, Gabelt BT, Kaufman PL, Weinreb RN. Topical prostaglandin F2alpha treatment reduces collagen types I, III, and IV in the monkey uveoscleral outflow pathway. Arch Ophthalmol. 1999;117(6):794–801.
Gaton DD, Sagara T, Lindsey JD, Weinreb RN. Matrix metalloproteinase-1 localization in the normal human uveoscleral outflow pathway. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 1999;40(2):363–369.
Ota T, Aihara M, Narumiya S, Araie M. The effects of prostaglandin analogues on IOP in prostanoid FP-receptor-deficient mice. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2005;46(11):4159–4163.
Hellberg MR, Ke TL, Haggard K, Klimko PG, Dean TR, Graff G. The hydrolysis of the prostaglandin analog prodrug bimatoprost to 17-phenyl-trinor PGF2alpha by human and rabbit ocular tissue. J Ocul Pharmacol Ther. 2003;19(2):97–103.
Camras CB, Toris CB, Sjoquist B, et al. Detection of the free acid of bimatoprost in aqueous humor samples from human eyes treated with bimatoprost before cataract surgery. Ophthalmology. 2004;111(12):2193–2198.
Sharif NA, Williams GW, Kelly CR. Bimatoprost and its free acid are prostaglandin FP receptor agonists. Eur J Pharmacol. 2001;432(2-3):211–213.
Cantor LB, Hoop J, Wudunn D, et al. Levels of bimatoprost acid in the aqueous humour after bimatoprost treatment of patients with cataract. Br J Ophthalmol. 2007;91(5):629–632.
Spada CS, Krauss AH, Woodward DF, et al. Bimatoprost and prostaglandin F(2 alpha) selectively stimulate intracellular calcium signaling in different cat iris sphincter cells. Exp Eye Res. 2005;80(1):135–145.
Alm A, Stjernschantz J. Effects on intraocular pressure and side effects of 0.005% latanoprost applied once daily, evening or morning. A comparison with timolol. Scandinavian Latanoprost Study Group. Ophthalmology. 1995;102(12):1743–1752.
Alm A, Widengard I, Kjellgren D, et al. Latanoprost administered once daily caused a maintained reduction of intraocular pressure in glaucoma patients treated concomitantly with timolol. Br J Ophthalmol. 1995;79(1):12–16.
Linden C, Alm A. Latanoprost twice daily is less effective than once daily: indication of receptor subsensitivity? Curr Eye Res. 1998;17(6):567–572.
Sjoquist B, Stjernschantz J. Ocular and systemic pharmacokinetics of latanoprost in humans. Surv Ophthalmol. 2002;47(Suppl 1):S6-S12.
Hellberg MR, Sallee VL, McLaughlin MA, et al. Preclinical efficacy of travoprost, a potent and selective FP prostaglandin receptor agonist. J Ocul Pharmacol Ther. 2001;17(5):421–432.
Sharif NA, Kelly CR, Crider JY, Williams GW, Xu SX. Ocular hypotensive FP prostaglandin (PG) analogs: PG receptor subtype binding affinities and selectivities, and agonist potencies at FP and other PG receptors in cultured cells. J Ocul Pharmacol Ther. 2003;19(6):501–515.
Sit AJ, Weinreb RN, Crowston JG, Kripke DF, Liu JH. Sustained effect of travoprost on diurnal and nocturnal intraocular pressure. Am J Ophthalmol. 2006;141(6):1131–1133.
Gross RL, Peace JH, Smith SE, et al. Duration of IOP reduction with travoprost BAK-free solution. J Glaucoma. 2008;17(3):217–222.
Stewart WC, Kolker AE, Stewart JA, Leech J, Jackson AL. Conjunctival hyperemia in healthy subjects after short-term dosing with latanoprost, bimatoprost, and travoprost. Am J Ophthalmol. 2003;135(3):314–320.
Chen J, Woodward DF. Prostanoid FP receptor mediated, endothelium dependent vasodilatation and the ocular surface hyperemic response to PGF2 alpha and related compounds. Adv Exp Med Biol. 2002;507:331–336.
Gandolfi SA, Cimino L. Effect of bimatoprost on patients with primary open-angle glaucoma or ocular hypertension who are nonresponders to latanoprost. Ophthalmology. 2003;110(3):609–614.
Konstas AG, Katsimbris JM, Lallos N, Boukaras GP, Jenkins JN, Stewart WC. Latanoprost 0.005% versus bimatoprost 0.03% in primary open-angle glaucoma patients. Ophthalmology. 2005;112(2):262–266.
Honrubia F, Garcia-Sánchez J, Polo V, de la Casa JM, Soto J. Conjunctival hyperemia with the use of latanoprost versus other prostaglandin analogues in patients with ocular hypertension or glaucoma: a meta-analysis of randomized clinical trials. Br J Ophthalmol. http://bjo.bmj.com/cgi/content/abstract/bjo.2007.135111v1 ed: published online 19 Nov 2008; 2009.
Funk CD. Prostaglandins and leukotrienes: advances in eicosanoid biology. Science. 2001;294(5548):1871–1875.
Narumiya S, FitzGerald GA. Genetic and pharmacological analysis of prostanoid receptor function. J Clin Invest. 2001;108(1):25–30.
Tilley SL, Coffman TM, Koller BH. Mixed messages: modulation of inflammation and immune responses by prostaglandins and thromboxanes. J Clin Invest. 2001;108(1):15–23.
Sugimoto Y, Narumiya S, Ichikawa A. Distribution and function of prostanoid receptors: studies from knockout mice. Prog Lipid Res. 2000;39(4):289–314.
Abelson MB, Mroz M, Rosner SA, Dirks MS, Hirabayashi D. Multicenter, open-label evaluation of hyperemia associated with use of bimatoprost in adults with open-angle glaucoma or ocular hypertension. Adv Ther. 2003;20(1):1–13.
Trattler W, Noecker RJ, Earl ML. A multicentre evaluation of the effect of patient education on acceptance of hyperaemia associated with bimatoprost therapy for glaucoma or ocular hypertension. Adv Ther. 2008;25(3):179–189.
Parrish RK, Palmberg P, Sheu WP. A comparison of latanoprost, bimatoprost, and travoprost in patients with elevated intraocular pressure: a 12-week, randomized, masked-evaluator multicenter study. Am J Ophthalmol. 2003;135(5):688–703.
Denis P, Lafuma A, Khoshnood B, Mimaud V, Berdeaux G. A meta-analysis of topical prostaglandin analogues intra-ocular pressure lowering in glaucoma therapy. Curr Med Res Opin. 2007;23(3):601–608.
Goldberg I. Comparison of tropical travoprost eye drops given once daily and timolol 0.5% given twice daily in patients with open-angle glaucoma or ocular hypertension. J Glaucoma. 2001;10:414-422. J Glaucoma. 2002;11(3):275.
Cohen JS, Gross RL, Cheetham JK, VanDenburgh AM, Bernstein P, Whitcup SM. Two-year double-masked comparison of bimatoprost with timolol in patients with glaucoma or ocular hypertension. Surv Ophthalmol. 2004;49(Suppl 1):S45-S52.
Bayer A, Weiler W, Oeverhaus U, Skrotzki FE, Stewart WC. Two-year follow-up of latanoprost 0.005% monotherapy after changing from previous glaucoma therapies. J Ocul Pharmacol Ther. 2004;20(6):470–478.
Higginbotham EJ. Managing glaucoma during pregnancy. JAMA. 2006;296(10):1284–1285.
Maris PJ Jr, Mandal AK, Netland PA. Medical therapy of pediatric glaucoma and glaucoma in pregnancy. Ophthalmol Clin North Am. 2005;18(3):461-468, vii.
Johnson SM, Martinez M, Freedman S. Management of glaucoma in pregnancy and lactation. Surv Ophthalmol. 2001;45(5):449–454.
Lee YC. Abdominal cramp as an adverse effect of travoprost. Am J Ophthalmol. 2005;139(1):202–203.
Papachristou GC, Ritch R, Liebmann JM. Gastrointestinal adverse effects of prostaglandin analogues. Arch Ophthalmol. 2008;126(5):732–733.
Schumer RA, Camras CB, Mandahl AK. Putative side effects of prostaglandin analogs. Surv Ophthalmol. 2002;47 Suppl 1:S219.
Kroll DM, Schuman JS. Reactivation of herpes simplex virus keratitis after initiating bimatoprost treatment for glaucoma. Am J Ophthalmol. 2002;133(3):401–403.
Wand M, Gilbert CM, Liesegang TJ. Latanoprost and herpes simplex keratitis. Am J Ophthalmol. 1999;127(5):602–604.
Deai T, Fukuda M, Hibino T, Higaki S, Hayashi K, Shimomura Y. Herpes simplex virus genome quantification in two patients who developed herpetic epithelial keratitis during treatment with antiglaucoma medications. Cornea. 2004;23(2):125–128.
Gordon YJ, Yates KA, Mah FS, Romanowski EG. The effects of Xalatan on the recovery of ocular herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) in the induced reactivation and spontaneous shedding rabbit models. J Ocul Pharmacol Ther. 2003;19(3):233–245.
Kothari MT, Mehta BK, Asher NS, Kothari KJ. Recurrence of bilateral herpes simplex virus keratitis following bimatoprost use. Indian J Ophthalmol. 2006;54(1):47–48.
Ekatomatis P. Herpes simplex dendritic keratitis after treatment with latanoprost for primary open angle glaucoma. Br J Ophthalmol. 2001;85(8):1008–1009.
Halpern DL, Pasquale LR. Cystoid macular edema in aphakia and pseudophakia after use of prostaglandin analogs. Semin Ophthalmol. 2002;17(3-4):181–186.
Ahad MA, McKee HD. Stopping prostaglandin analogues in uneventful cataract surgery. J Cataract Refract Surg. 2004;30(12):2644–2645.
Altintas O, Yuksel N, Karabas VL, Demirci G. Cystoid macular edema associated with latanoprost after uncomplicated cataract surgery. Eur J Ophthalmol. 2005;15(1):158–161.
Miyake K, Ibaraki N. Prostaglandins and cystoid macular edema. Surv Ophthalmol. 2002;47(Suppl 1):S203-S218.
Yalvac I, Airaksinen PJ, Tuulonen A. Phacoemulsification with and without trabeculectomy in patients with glaucoma. Ophthalmic Surg Lasers. 1997;28(6):469–475.
McGuigan LJ, Gottsch J, Stark WJ, Maumenee AE, Quigley HA. Extracapsular cataract extraction and posterior chamber lens implantation in eyes with preexisting glaucoma. Arch Ophthalmol. 1986;104(9):1301–1308.
Steuhl KP, Marahrens P, Frohn C, Frohn A. Intraocular pressure and anterior chamber depth before and after extracapsular cataract extraction with posterior chamber lens implantation. Ophthalmic Surg. 1992;23(4):233–237.
Wittpenn JR, Silverstein S, Heier J, Kenyon KR, Hunkeler JD, Earl M. A randomized, masked comparison of topical ketorolac 0.4% plus steroid vs steroid alone in low-risk cataract surgery patients. Am J Ophthalmol. 2008;146(4):554–560.
Wand M, Shields BM. Cystoid macular edema in the era of ocular hypotensive lipids. Am J Ophthalmol. 2002;133(3):393–397.
Smith SL, Pruitt CA, Sine CS, Hudgins AC, Stewart WC. Latanoprost 0.005% and anterior segment uveitis. Acta Ophthalmol Scand. 1999;77(6):668–672.
Fechtner RD, Khouri AS, Zimmerman TJ, et al. Anterior uveitis associated with latanoprost. Am J Ophthalmol. 1998;126(1):37–41.
Warwar RE, Bullock JD, Ballal D. Cystoid macular edema and anterior uveitis associated with latanoprost use. Experience and incidence in a retrospective review of 94 patients. Ophthalmology. 1998;105(2):263–268.
Sacca S, Pascotto A, Siniscalchi C, Rolando M. Ocular complications of latanoprost in uveitic glaucoma: three case reports. J Ocul Pharmacol Ther. 2001;17(2):107–113.
Suominen S, Valimaki J. Bilateral anterior uveitis associated with travoprost. Acta Ophthalmol Scand. 2006;84(2):275–276.
Faulkner WJ, Burk SE. Acute anterior uveitis and corneal edema associated with travoprost. Arch Ophthalmol. 2003;121(7):1054–1055.
Packer M, Fine IH, Hoffman RS. Bilateral nongranulomatous anterior uveitis associated with bimatoprost. J Cataract Refract Surg. 2003;29(11):2242–2243.
Parentin F. Granulomatous anterior uveitis associated with bimatoprost: a case report. Ocul Immunol Inflamm. 2003;11(1):67–71.
Fortuna E, Castaneda-Cervantes RA, Bhat P, Doctor P, Foster CS. Flare-up rates with bimatoprost therapy in uveitic glaucoma. Am J Ophthalmol. 2008;146(6):876–882.
Aung T, Wong HT, Yip CC, Leong JY, Chan YH, Chew PT. Comparison of the intraocular pressure-lowering effect of latanoprost and timolol in patients with chronic angle closure glaucoma: a preliminary study. Ophthalmology. 2000;107(6):1178–1183.
Saw SM, Gazzard G, Friedman DS. Interventions for angle-closure glaucoma: an evidence-based update. Ophthalmology. 2003;110(10):1869-1878. quiz 1878-1869, 1930.
Doi LM, Melo LA Jr, Prata JA Jr. Effects of the combination of bimatoprost and latanoprost on intraocular pressure in primary open angle glaucoma: a randomised clinical trial. Br J Ophthalmol. 2005;89(5):547–549.
Stjernschantz JW, Albert DM, Hu DN, Drago F, Wistrand PJ. Mechanism and clinical significance of prostaglandin-induced iris pigmentation. Surv Ophthalmol. 2002;47(Suppl 1):S162-S175.
Teus MA, Arranz-Marquez E, Lucea-Suescun P. Incidence of iris colour change in latanoprost treated eyes. Br J Ophthalmol. 2002;86(10):1085–1088.
Johnstone MA. Hypertrichosis and increased pigmentation of eyelashes and adjacent hair in the region of the ipsilateral eyelids of patients treated with unilateral topical latanoprost. Am J Ophthalmol. 1997;124(4):544–547.
Tosti A, Pazzaglia M, Voudouris S, Tosti G. Hypertrichosis of the eyelashes caused by bimatoprost. J Am Acad Dermatol. 2004;51(5 Suppl):S149-S150.
Stecchi G, Saccucci S, Molinari S, De Gregorio F. Eyelash hypertrichosis induced by topical latanoprost: 6-month follow-up study. Acta Ophthalmol Scand Suppl. 2002;236:56–57.
Demitsu T, Manabe M, Harima N, Sugiyama T, Yoneda K, Yamada N. Hypertrichosis induced by latanoprost. J Am Acad Dermatol. 2001;44(4):721–723.
Strober BE, Potash S, Grossman ME. Eyelash hypertrichosis in a patient treated with topical latanoprost. Cutis. 2001;67(2):109–110.
Herane MI, Urbina F. Acquired trichomegaly of the eyelashes and hypertrichosis induced by bimatoprost. J Eur Acad Dermatol Venereol. 2004;18(5):644–645.
Wand M. Latanoprost and hyperpigmentation of eyelashes. Arch Ophthalmol. 1997;115(9):1206–1208.
Kapur R, Osmanovic S, Toyran S, Edward DP. Bimatoprost-induced periocular skin hyperpigmentation: histopathological study. Arch Ophthalmol. 2005;123(11):1541–1546.
Herndon LW, Robert DW, Wand M, Asrani S. Increased periocular pigmentation with ocular hypotensive lipid use in African Americans. Am J Ophthalmol. 2003;135(5):713–715.
Kook MS, Lee K. Increased eyelid pigmentation associated with use of latanoprost. Am J Ophthalmol. 2000;129(6):804–806.
Wand M, Ritch R, Isbey EK Jr, Zimmerman TJ. Latanoprost and periocular skin color changes. Arch Ophthalmol. 2001;119(4):614–615.
Chen CS, Wells J, Craig JE. Topical prostaglandin F(2alpha) analog induced poliosis. Am J Ophthalmol. 2004;137(5):965–966.
Shaikh MY, Bodla AA. Hypertrichosis of the eyelashes from prostaglandin analog use: a blessing or a bother to the patient? J Ocul Pharmacol Ther. 2006;22(1):76–77.
O’Toole L, Cahill M, O’Brien C. Eyelid hypertrichosis associated with latanoprost is reversible. Eur J Ophthalmol. 2001;11(4):377–379.
Hart J, Shafranov G. Hypertrichosis of vellus hairs of the malar region after unilateral treatment with bimatoprost. Am J Ophthalmol. 2004;137(4):756–757.
Wistrand PJ, Garg LC. Evidence of a high-activity C type of carbonic anhydrase in human ciliary processes. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 1979;18(8):802–806.
Matsui H, Murakami M, Wynns GC, et al. Membrane carbonic anhydrase (IV) and ciliary epithelium. Carbonic anhydrase activity is present in the basolateral membranes of the non-pigmented ciliary epithelium of rabbit eyes. Exp Eye Res. 1996;62(4):409–417.
Maren TH. Carbonic anhydrase: chemistry, physiology, and inhibition. Physiol Rev. 1967;47(4):595–781.
Becker B. Decrease in intraocular pressure in man by a carbonic anhydrase inhibitor, diamox; a preliminary report. Am J Ophthalmol. 1954;37(1):13–15.
Bietti G, Virno M, Pecori-Giraldi J. Acetazolamide, metabolic acidosis, and intraocular pressure. Am J Ophthalmol. 1975;80(3 Pt 1):360–369.
Maren TH, Haywood JR, Chapman SK, Zimmerman TJ. The pharmacology of methazolamide in relation to the treatment of glaucoma. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 1977;16(8):730–742.
Lam DS, Lai JS, Tham CC, Chua JK, Poon AS. Argon laser peripheral iridoplasty versus conventional systemic medical therapy in treatment of acute primary angle-closure glaucoma: a prospective, randomized, controlled trial. Ophthalmology. 2002;109(9):1591–1596.
Hoh ST, Aung T, Chew PT. Medical management of angle closure glaucoma. Semin Ophthalmol. 2002;17(2):79–83.
Turtz CA, Turtz AI. Toxicity due to acetazolamide (diamox). AMA Arch Ophthalmol. 1958;60(1):130–131.
Spring M. Skin eruptions following the use of diamox. Ann Allergy. 1956;14(1):41–43.
Sud RN, Grewal SS. Stevens-Johnson syndrome due to Diamox. Indian J Ophthalmol. 1981;29(2):101–103.
Shirato S, Kagaya F, Suzuki Y, Joukou S. Stevens-Johnson syndrome induced by methazolamide treatment. Arch Ophthalmol. 1997;115(4):550–553.
Flach AJ, Smith RE, Fraunfelder FT. Stevens-Johnson syndrome associated with methazolamide treatment reported in two Japanese-American women. Ophthalmology. 1995;102(11):1677–1680.
Strom BL, Schinnar R, Apter AJ, et al. Absence of cross-reactivity between sulfonamide antibiotics and sulfonamide nonantibiotics. N Engl J Med. 2003;349(17):1628–1635.
Friedland BR, Mallonee J, Anderson DR. Short-term dose response characteristics of acetazolamide in man. Arch Ophthalmol. 1977;95(10):1809–1812.
Bateson MC. Dietary potassium and diuretic therapy. Am Heart J. 1974;88(1):124–125.
Bateson MC, Lant AF. Dietary potassium and diuretic therapy. Lancet. 1973;2(7825):381–382.
Dahlen K, Epstein DL, Grant WM, Hutchinson BT, Prien EL Jr, Krall JM. A repeated dose-response study of methazolamide in glaucoma. Arch Ophthalmol. 1978;96(12):2214–2218.
Kass MA, Kolker AE, Gordon M, et al. Acetazolamide and urolithiasis. Ophthalmology. 1981;88(3):261–265.
Stone RA, Zimmerman TJ, Shin DH, Becker B, Kass MA. Low-dose methazolamide and intraocular pressure. Am J Ophthalmol. 1977;83(5):674–679.
Shields MB, Simmons RJ. Urinary calculus during methazolamide therapy. Am J Ophthalmol. 1976;81(5):622–624.
Anderson CJ, Kaufman PL, Sturm RJ. Toxicity of combined therapy with carbonic anhydrase inhibitors and aspirin. Am J Ophthalmol. 1978;86(4):516–519.
Rousseau P, Fuentevilla-Clifton A. Acetazolamide and salicylate interaction in the elderly: a case report. J Am Geriatr Soc. 1993;41(8):868–869.
Sweeney KR, Chapron DJ, Brandt JL, Gomolin IH, Feig PU, Kramer PA. Toxic interaction between acetazolamide and salicylate: case reports and a pharmacokinetic explanation. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 1986;40(5):518–524.
Liddell NE, Maren TH. CO2 retention as a basis for increased toxicity of salicylate with acetazolamide: avoidance of increased toxicity with benzolamide. J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 1975;195(1):1–7.
Becker B, Middleton WH. Long-term acetazoleamide (diamox) administration in therapy of glaucomas. AMA Arch Ophthalmol. 1955;54(2):187–192.
Epstein DL, Grant WM. Carbonic anhydrase inhibitor side effects. Serum chemical analysis. Arch Ophthalmol. 1977;95(8):1378–1382.
Alward WL. Medical management of glaucoma. N Engl J Med. 1998;339(18):1298–1307.
Miller LG, Miller SM. Altered taste secondary to acetazolamide therapy. J Fam Pract. 1990;31(2):199–200.
Graber M, Kelleher S. Side effects of acetazolamide: the champagne blues. Am J Med. 1988;84(5):979–980.
Wallace TR, Fraunfelder FT, Petursson GJ, Epstein DL. Decreased libido – a side effect of carbonic anhydrase inhibitor. Ann Ophthalmol. 1979;11(10):1563–1566.
Epstein RJ, Allen RC, Lunde MW. Organic impotence associated with carbonic anhydrase inhibitor therapy for glaucoma. Ann Ophthalmol. 1987;19(2):48–50.
Keisu M, Wiholm BE, Ost A, Mortimer O. Acetazolamide-associated aplastic anaemia. J Intern Med. 1990;228(6):627–632.
Lubeck MJ. Aplastic anemia following acetazolamide therapy. Am J Ophthalmol. 1970;69(4):684–685.
Zimran A, Beutler E. Can the risk of acetazolamide-induced aplastic anemia be decreased by periodic monitoring of blood cell counts? Am J Ophthalmol. 1987;104(6):654–658.
Fraunfelder FT, Bagby GC. Monitoring patients taking oral carbonic anhydrase inhibitors. Am J Ophthalmol. 2000;130(2):221–223.
Mogk LG, Cyrlin MN. Blood dyscrasias and carbonic anhydrase inhibitors. Ophthalmology. 1988;95(6):768–771.
Balfour JA, Wilde MI. Dorzolamide. A review of its pharmacology and therapeutic potential in the management of glaucoma and ocular hypertension. Drugs Aging. 1997;10(5):384–403.
Herkel U, Pfeiffer N. Update on topical carbonic anhydrase inhibitors. Curr Opin Ophthalmol. 2001;12(2):88–93.
Pfeiffer N. Dorzolamide: development and clinical application of a topical carbonic anhydrase inhibitor. Surv Ophthalmol. 1997;42(2):137–151.
Stewart WC. Perspectives in the medical treatment of glaucoma. Curr Opin Ophthalmol. 1999;10(2):99–108.
DeSantis L. Preclinical overview of brinzolamide. Surv Ophthalmol. 2000;44(Suppl 2):S119-S129.
March WF, Ochsner KI. The long-term safety and efficacy of brinzolamide 1.0% (azopt) in patients with primary open-angle glaucoma or ocular hypertension. The Brinzolamide Long-Term Therapy Study Group. Am J Ophthalmol. 2000;129(2):136–143.
Sugrue MF. Pharmacological and ocular hypotensive properties of topical carbonic anhydrase inhibitors. Prog Retin Eye Res. 2000;19(1):87–112.
Silver LH. Ocular comfort of brinzolamide 1.0% ophthalmic suspension compared with dorzolamide 2.0% ophthalmic solution: results from two multicenter comfort studies. Brinzolamide Comfort Study Group. Surv Ophthalmol. 2000;44 Suppl 2:S141–145.
Barnebey H, Kwok SY. Patients’ acceptance of a switch from dorzolamide to brinzolamide for the treatment of glaucoma in a clinical practice setting. Clin Ther. 2000;22(10):1204–1212.
Ingram CJ, Brubaker RF. Effect of brinzolamide and dorzolamide on aqueous humor flow in human eyes. Am J Ophthalmol. 1999;128(3):292–296.
Moore W, Nischal KK. Pharmacologic management of glaucoma in childhood. Paediatr Drugs. 2007;9(2):71–79.
Terraciano AJ, Sidoti PA. Management of refractory glaucoma in childhood. Curr Opin Ophthalmol. 2002;13(2):97–102.
Maus TL, Larsson LI, McLaren JW, Brubaker RF. Comparison of dorzolamide and acetazolamide as suppressors of aqueous humor flow in humans. Arch Ophthalmol. 1997;115(1):45–49.
Kaminski S, Hommer A, Koyuncu D, Biowski R, Barisani T, Baumgartner I. Influence of dorzolamide on corneal thickness, endothelial cell count and corneal sensibility. Acta Ophthalmol Scand. 1998;76(1):78–79.
Giasson CJ, Nguyen TQ, Boisjoly HM, Lesk MR, Amyot M, Charest M. Dorzolamide and corneal recovery from edema in patients with glaucoma or ocular hypertension. Am J Ophthalmol. 2000;129(2):144–150.
Zhao JC, Chen T. Brinzolamide induced reversible corneal decompensation. Br J Ophthalmol. 2005;89(3):389–390.
Orzalesi N, Rossetti L, Invernizzi T, Bottoli A, Autelitano A. Effect of timolol, latanoprost, and dorzolamide on circadian IOP in glaucoma or ocular hypertension. Am J Ophthalmol. 2000;130(5):687.
Orzalesi N, Rossetti L, Invernizzi T, Bottoli A, Autelitano A. Effect of timolol, latanoprost, and dorzolamide on circadian IOP in glaucoma or ocular hypertension. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2000;41(9):2566–2573.
McCannel CA, Heinrich SR, Brubaker RF. Acetazolamide but not timolol lowers aqueous humor flow in sleeping humans. Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol. 1992;230(6):518–520.
Silver LH. Dose-response evaluation of the ocular hypotensive effect of brinzolamide ophthalmic suspension (Azopt). Brinzolamide Dose-Response Study Group. Surv Ophthalmol. 2000;44 Suppl 2:S147-S153.
Nordmann JP. Aqueous Suppressants. In: Weinreb R, Kitazawa Y, Krieglstein GK, eds. Glaucoma in the 21st Century. London: Mosby; 2000:109–116.
Mackool RJ, Muldoon T, Fortier A, Nelson D. Epinephrine-induced cystoid macular edema in aphakic eyes. Arch Ophthalmol. 1977;95(5):791–793.
Gass JD, Norton EW. Cystoid macular edema and papilledema following cataract extraction. A fluorescein fundoscopic and angiographic study. Arch Ophthalmol. 1966;76(5):646–661.
Fong DS, Frederick AR Jr, Richter CU, Jakobiec FA. Adrenochrome deposit. Arch Ophthalmol. 1993;111(8):1142–1143.
Kaiser PK, Pineda R, Albert DM, Shore JW. ‘Black cornea’ after long-term epinephrine use. Arch Ophthalmol. 1992;110(9):1273–1275.
Pardos GJ, Krachmer JH, Mannis MJ. Persistent corneal erosion secondary to tarsal adrenochrome deposit. Am J Ophthalmol. 1980;90(6):870–871.
McCarthy RW, LeBlanc R. A ‘black cornea’ secondary to topical epinephrine. Can J Ophthalmol. 1976;11(4):336–340.
Schmitt H, Remler O. Adrenochrome conjunctival inclusions following a local adrenaline therapy (author’s transl). Klin Monatsbl Augenheilkd. 1974;165(2):332–336.
Sugar J. Adrenochrome pigmentation of hydrophilic lenses. Arch Ophthalmol. 1974;91(1):11–12.
Green WR, Kaufer GJ, Dubroff S. Black cornea: a complication of topical use of epinephrine. Ophthalmologica. 1967;154(2):88–95.
Reinecke RD, Kuwabara T. Corneal Deposits Secondary to Topical Epinephrine. Arch Ophthalmol. 1963;70:170–172.
Kerr CR, Hass I, Drance SM, Walters MB, Schulzer M. Cardiovascular effects of epinephrine and dipivalyl epinephrine applied topically to the eye in patients with glaucoma. Br J Ophthalmol. 1982;66(2):109–114.
Davidson SI. Systemic effects of eye drops. Trans Ophthalmol Soc U K. 1974;94(2):487–495.
Mills KB, Jacobs NA. A single-blind randomised trial comparing adrenaline 1.0% with dipivalyl epinephrine (propine) 0.1% in the treatment of open-angle glaucoma and ocular hypertension. Br J Ophthalmol. 1988;72(6):465–468.
Coleiro JA, Sigurdsson H, Lockyer JA. Follicular conjunctivitis on Dipivefrin therapy for glaucoma. Eye. 1988;2(Pt 4):440–442.
Cebon L, West RH, Gillies WE. Experience with dipivalyl epinephrine. Its effectiveness, alone or in combination, and its side effects. Aust J Ophthalmol. 1983;11(3):159–161.
Wandel T, Spinak M. Toxicity of dipivalyl epinephrine. Ophthalmology. 1981;88(3):259–260.
Podos SM, Ritch R. Epinephrine as the initial therapy in selected cases of ocular hypertension. Surv Ophthalmol. 1980;25(3):188–194.
Goldberg I, Kolker AE, Kass MA, Becker B. Dipivefrin: current concepts. Aust J Ophthalmol. 1980;8(2):147–150.
Kramer SG. Epinephrine distribution after topical administration to phakic and aphakic eyes. Trans Am Ophthalmol Soc. 1980;78:947–982.
Theodore J, Leibowitz HM. External ocular toxicity of dipivalyl epinephrine. Am J Ophthalmol. 1979;88(6):1013–1016.
Kohn AN, Moss AP, Hargett NA, Ritch R, Smith H Jr, Podos SM. Clinical comparison of dipivalyl epinephrine and epinephrine in the treatment of glaucoma. Am J Ophthalmol. 1979;87(2):196–201.
Kass MA, Mandell AI, Goldberg I, Paine JM, Becker B. Dipivefrin and epinephrine treatment of elevated intraocular pressure: a comparative study. Arch Ophthalmol. 1979;97(10):1865–1866.
Hodapp E, Kolker AE, Kass MA, Goldberg I, Becker B, Gordon M. The effect of topical clonidine on intraocular pressure. Arch Ophthalmol. 1981;99(7):1208–1211.
Harrison R, Kaufmann CS. Clonidine. Effects of a topically administered solution on intraocular pressure and blood pressure in open-angle glaucoma. Arch Ophthalmol. 1977;95(8):1368–1373.
Petursson G, Cole R, Hanna C. Treatment of glaucoma using minidrops of clonidine. Arch Ophthalmol. 1984;102(8):1180–1181.
Reitsamer HA, Posey M, Kiel JW. Effects of a topical alpha2 adrenergic agonist on ciliary blood flow and aqueous production in rabbits. Exp Eye Res. 2006;82(3):405–415.
Toris CB, Camras CB, Yablonski ME. Acute versus chronic effects of brimonidine on aqueous humor dynamics in ocular hypertensive patients. Am J Ophthalmol. 1999;128(1):8–14.
Benozzi J, Jaliffa CO, Firpo Lacoste F, Llomovatte DW, Keller Sarmiento MI, Rosenstein RE. Effect of brimonidine on rabbit trabecular meshwork hyaluronidase activity. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2000;41(8):2268–2272.
Robin AL, Pollack IP, DeFaller JM. Effects of topical ALO 2145 (p-aminoclonidine hydrochloride) on the acute intraocular pressure rise after argon laser iridotomy. Arch Ophthalmol. 1987;105(9):1208–1211.
Pollack IP, Brown RH, Crandall AS, Robin AL, Stewart RH, White GL. Prevention of the rise in intraocular pressure following neodymium-YAG posterior capsulotomy using topical 1% apraclonidine. Arch Ophthalmol. 1988;106(6):754–757.
Brown RH, Stewart RH, Lynch MG, et al. ALO 2145 reduces the intraocular pressure elevation after anterior segment laser surgery. Ophthalmology. 1988;95(3):378–384.
Fourman S. Effects of topical ALO 2145 (p-aminoclonidine hydrochloride, aplonidine hydrochloride) on the acute intraocular pressure rise after argon laser iridotomy. Arch Ophthalmol. 1988;106(3):307–309.
Araujo SV, Bond JB, Wilson RP, Moster MR, Schmidt CM Jr, Spaeth GL. Long term effect of apraclonidine. Br J Ophthalmol. 1995;79(12):1098–1101.
Yuksel N, Guler C, Caglar Y, Elibol O. Apraclonidine and clonidine: a comparison of efficacy and side effects in normal and ocular hypertensive volunteers. Int Ophthalmol. 1992;16(4–5):337–342.
Greenfield DS, Liebmann JM, Ritch R. Brimonidine: a new alpha2-adrenoreceptor agonist for glaucoma treatment. J Glaucoma. 1997;6(4):250–258.
Schuman JS, Horwitz B, Choplin NT, David R, Albracht D, Chen K. A 1-year study of brimonidine twice daily in glaucoma and ocular hypertension. A controlled, randomized, multicenter clinical trial. Chronic Brimonidine Study Group. Arch Ophthalmol. 1997;115(7):847–852.
Derick RJ, Robin AL, Walters TR, et al. Brimonidine tartrate: a one-month dose response study. Ophthalmology. 1997;104(1):131–136.
Serle JB. A comparison of the safety and efficacy of twice daily brimonidine 0.2% versus betaxolol 0.25% in subjects with elevated intraocular pressure. The Brimonidine Study Group III. Surv Ophthalmol. 1996;41 Suppl 1:S39-S47.
Cantor LB, WuDunn D, Catoira-Boyle Y, Yung CW. Absorption of brimonidine 0.1% and 0.15% ophthalmic solutions in the aqueous humor of cataract patients. J Glaucoma. 2008;17(7):529–534.
Acheampong AA, Small D, Baumgarten V, Welty D, Tang-Liu D. Formulation effects on ocular absorption of brimonidine in rabbit eyes. J Ocul Pharmacol Ther. 2002;18(4):325–337.
Gordon RN, Liebmann JM, Greenfield DS, Lama P, Ritch R. Lack of cross-reactive allergic response to brimonidine in patients with known apraclonidine allergy. Eye. 1998;12(Pt 4):697–700.
Whitson JT, Ochsner KI, Moster MR, et al. The safety and intraocular pressure-lowering efficacy of brimonidine tartrate 0.15% preserved with polyquaternium-1. Ophthalmology. 2006;113(8):1333–1339.
Orzalesi N, Rossetti L, Bottoli A, Fumagalli E, Fogagnolo P. The effect of latanoprost, brimonidine, and a fixed combination of timolol and dorzolamide on circadian intraocular pressure in patients with glaucoma or ocular hypertension. Arch Ophthalmol. 2003;121(4):453–457.
Al-Shahwan S, Al-Torbak AA, Turkmani S, Al-Omran M, Al-Jadaan I, Edward DP. Side-effect profile of brimonidine tartrate in children. Ophthalmology. 2005;112(12):2143.
Bowman RJ, Cope J, Nischal KK. Ocular and systemic side effects of brimonidine 0.2% eye drops (Alphagan) in children. Eye. 2004;18(1):24–26.
Enyedi LB, Freedman SF. Safety and efficacy of brimonidine in children with glaucoma. J AAPOS. 2001;5(5):281–284.
Mungan NK, Wilson TW, Nischal KK, Koren G, Levin AV. Hypotension and bradycardia in infants after the use of topical brimonidine and beta-blockers. J AAPOS. 2003;7(1):69–70.
Schuman JS. Short- and long-term safety of glaucoma drugs. Expert Opin Drug Saf. 2002;1(2):181–194.
Simmons ST. Efficacy of brimonidine 0.2% and dorzolamide 2% as adjunctive therapy to beta-blockers in adult patients with glaucoma or ocular hypertension. Clin Ther. 2001;23(4):604–619.
Walters TR. Development and use of brimonidine in treating acute and chronic elevations of intraocular pressure: a review of safety, efficacy, dose response, and dosing studies. Surv Ophthalmol. 1996;41(Suppl 1):S19-S26.
WoldeMussie E, Ruiz G, Wijono M, Wheeler LA. Neuroprotection of retinal ganglion cells by brimonidine in rats with laser-induced chronic ocular hypertension. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2001;42(12):2849–2855.
Wheeler LA, Lai R, Woldemussie E. From the lab to the clinic: activation of an alpha-2 agonist pathway is neuroprotective in models of retinal and optic nerve injury. Eur J Ophthalmol. 1999;9 Suppl 1:S17-S21.
Kent AR, King L, Bartholomew LR. Vitreous concentration of topically applied brimonidine-purite 0.15%. J Ocul Pharmacol Ther. 2006;22(4):242–246.
Kent AR, Nussdorf JD, David R, Tyson F, Small D, Fellows D. Vitreous concentration of topically applied brimonidine tartrate 0.2%. Ophthalmology. 2001;108(4):784–787.
Wen R, Cheng T, Li Y, Cao W, Steinberg RH. Alpha 2-adrenergic agonists induce basic fibroblast growth factor expression in photoreceptors in vivo and ameliorate light damage. J Neurosci. 1996;16(19):5986–5992.
Dreyer EB, Grosskreutz CL. Excitatory mechanisms in retinal ganglion cell death in primary open angle glaucoma (POAG). Clin Neurosci. 1997;4(5):270–273.
Donello JE, Padillo EU, Webster ML, Wheeler LA, Gil DW. alpha(2)-Adrenoceptor agonists inhibit vitreal glutamate and aspartate accumulation and preserve retinal function after transient ischemia. J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 2001;296(1):216–223.
Crawford K, Kaufman PL. Pilocarpine antagonizes prostaglandin F2 alpha-induced ocular hypotension in monkeys. Evidence for enhancement of Uveoscleral outflow by prostaglandin F2 alpha. Arch Ophthalmol. 1987;105(8):1112–1116.
Toris CB, Zhan GL, Zhao J, Camras CB, Yablonski ME. Potential mechanism for the additivity of pilocarpine and latanoprost. Am J Ophthalmol. 2001;131(6):722–728.
Zhong Y, Gao J, Ye W, Huang P, Cheng Y, Jiao Q. Effect of latanoprost acid and pilocarpine on cultured rabbit ciliary muscle cells. Ophthalmic Res. 2007;39(4):232–240.
Toris CB, Alm A, Camras CB. Latanoprost and cholinergic agonists in combination. Surv Ophthalmol. 2002;47(Suppl 1):S141-S147.
Zimmerman TJ, Wheeler TM. Miotics: side effects and ways to avoid them. Ophthalmology. 1982;89(1):76–80.
Abraham SV, Teller JJ. Influence of various miotics on cataract formation. Br J Ophthalmol. 1969;53(12):833–838.
Gorin G. Angle-closure glaucoma induced by miotics. Am J Ophthalmol. 1966;62(6):1063–1067.
Khaw PT, Shah P, Elkington AR. Glaucoma-2: treatment. BMJ. 2004;328(7432):156–158.
Ekong AS, Foster CS, Roque MR. Eye involvement in autoimmune blistering diseases. Clin Dermatol. 2001;19(6):742–749.
Bhol K, Mohimen A, Neumann R, et al. Differences in the anti-basement membrane zone antibodies in ocular and pseudo-ocular cicatricial pemphigoid. Curr Eye Res. 1996;15(5):521–532.
Pape LG, Forbes M. Retinal detachment and miotic therapy. Am J Ophthalmol. 1978;85(4):558–566.
Takakura AC, Moreira TS, Laitano SC, De Luca LA Jr, Renzi A, Menani JV. Central muscarinic receptors signal pilocarpine-induced salivation. J Dent Res. 2003;82(12):993–997.
Eilderton TE, Farmati O, Zsigmond EK. Reduction in plasma cholinesterase levels after prolonged administration of echothiophate iodide eyedrops. Can Anaesth Soc J. 1968;15(3):291–296.
Bruckner HL. Glycerol versus isosorbide. Ann Ophthalmol. 1972;4(8):629–633.
Mehra KS, Singh R, Char JN, Rajyashree K. Lowering of intraocular tension. Effects of isosorbide and glycerin. Arch Ophthalmol. 1971;85(2):167–168.
Fraunfelder FT, Fraunfelder FW, Randall JA. Drug-Induced Ocular Side Effects. 5th ed. Boston: Butterworth-Heinemann; 2001.
Katz LJ. Modern alchemy: fixed combinations of glaucoma drugs. Am J Ophthalmol. 2005;140(1):125–126.
Tsai JC, McClure CA, Ramos SE, Schlundt DG, Pichert JW. Compliance barriers in glaucoma: a systematic classification. J Glaucoma. 2003;12(5):393–398.
Robin AL, Covert D. Does adjunctive glaucoma therapy affect adherence to the initial primary therapy? Ophthalmology. 2005;112(5):863–868.
Larsson LI. Effect on intraocular pressure during 24 hours after repeated administration of the fixed combination of latanoprost 0.005% and timolol 0.5% in patients with ocular hypertension. J Glaucoma. 2001;10(2):109–114.
Larsson LI. The effect on diurnal intraocular pressure of the fixed combination of latanoprost 0.005% and timolol 0.5% in patients with ocular hypertension. Acta Ophthalmol Scand. 2001;79(2):125–128.
Lass JH, Eriksson GL, Osterling L, Simpson CV. Comparison of the corneal effects of latanoprost, fixed combination latanoprost-timolol, and timolol: a double-masked, randomized, one-year study. Ophthalmology. 2001;108(2):264–271.
Calissendorff B, Sjoquist B, Hogberg G, Grunge-Lowerud A. Bioavailability in the human eye of a fixed combination of latanoprost and timolol compared to monotherapy. J Ocul Pharmacol Ther. 2002;18(2):127–131.
Pfeiffer N. A comparison of the fixed combination of latanoprost and timolol with its individual components. Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol. 2002;240(11):893–899.
Konstas AG, Kozobolis VP, Tersis I, Leech J, Stewart WC. The efficacy and safety of the timolol/dorzolamide fixed combination vs latanoprost in exfoliation glaucoma. Eye. 2003;17(1):41–46.
Diestelhorst M, Larsson LI. A 12 week study comparing the fixed combination of latanoprost and timolol with the concomitant use of the individual components in patients with open angle glaucoma and ocular hypertension. Br J Ophthalmol. 2004;88(2):199–203.
Hamacher T, Schinzel M, Scholzel-Klatt A, et al. Short term efficacy and safety in glaucoma patients changed to the latanoprost 0.005%/timolol maleate 0.5% fixed combination from monotherapies and adjunctive therapies. Br J Ophthalmol. 2004;88(10):1295–1298.
Olander K, Zimmerman TJ, Downes N, Schoenfelder J. Switching from latanoprost to fixed-combination latanoprost-timolol: a 21-day, randomized, double-masked, active-control study in patients with glaucoma and ocular hypertension. Clin Ther. 2004;26(10):1619–1629.
Konstas AG, Lake S, Economou AI, Kaltsos K, Jenkins JN, Stewart WC. 24-Hour control with a latanoprost-timolol fixed combination vs timolol alone. Arch Ophthalmol. 2006;124(11):1553–1557.
Martinez A, Sanchez M. A comparison of the safety and intraocular pressure lowering of bimatoprost/timolol fixed combination versus latanoprost/timolol fixed combination in patients with open-angle glaucoma. Curr Med Res Opin. 2007;23(5):1025–1032.
Rossetti L, Karabatsas CH, Topouzis F, et al. Comparison of the effects of bimatoprost and a fixed combination of latanoprost and timolol on circadian intraocular pressure. Ophthalmology. 2007;114(12):2244–2251.
Lazaridou MN, Montgomery DM, Ho WO, Jaberoo D. Changes in intraocular pressure following a switch from latanoprost monotherapy to latanoprost/timolol fixed combination therapy in patients with primary open-angle glaucoma or ocular hypertension: results from a clinical practice database. Curr Med Res Opin. 2008;24(10):2725–2728.
Martinez A, Sanchez M. Bimatoprost/timolol fixed combination vs latanoprost/timolol fixed combination in open-angle glaucoma patients. Eye (Lond). 2009;23(4):810–818.
Brandt JD, Cantor LB, Katz LJ, Batoosingh AL, Chou C, Bossowska I. Bimatoprost/timolol fixed combination: a 3-month double-masked, randomized parallel comparison to its individual components in patients with glaucoma or ocular hypertension. J Glaucoma. 2008;17(3):211–216.
Martinez A, Sanchez M. Efficacy and safety of bimatoprost/timolol fixed combination in the treatment of glaucoma or ocular hypertension. Expert Opin Pharmacother. 2008;9(1):137–143.
Robin AL. A double-masked, randomized, parallel comparison of a fixed combination of bimatoprost 0.03%/timolol 0.5% with non-fixed combination use in patients with glaucoma or ocular hypertension. Eur J Ophthalmol. 2007;17(4):685-686. author reply 686–687.
Hommer A. A double-masked, randomized, parallel comparison of a fixed combination of bimatoprost 0.03%/timolol 0.5% with non-fixed combination use in patients with glaucoma or ocular hypertension. Eur J Ophthalmol. 2007;17(1):53–62.
Day DG, Sharpe ED, Beischel CJ, Jenkins JN, Stewart JA, Stewart WC. Safety and efficacy of bimatoprost 0.03% versus timolol maleate 0.5%/dorzolamide 2% fixed combination. Eur J Ophthalmol. 2005;15(3):336–342.
Konstas AG, Mikropoulos D, Haidich AB, Ntampos KS, Stewart WC. Twenty-four-hour intraocular pressure control with the travoprost/timolol maleate fixed combination compared with travoprost when both are dosed in the evening in primary open-angle glaucoma. Br J Ophthalmol. 2009;93(4):481–485.
Arend KO, Raber T. Observational study results in glaucoma patients undergoing a regimen replacement to fixed combination travoprost 0.004%/timolol 0.5% in Germany. J Ocul Pharmacol Ther. 2008;24(4):414–420.
Hollo G, Kothy P. Intraocular pressure reduction with travoprost/timolol fixed combination, with and without adjunctive brinzolamide, in glaucoma. Curr Med Res Opin. 2008;24(6):1755–1761.
Herceg M, Noecker R. Travoprost/timolol fixed combination. Expert Opin Pharmacother. 2008;9(6):1059–1065.
Noecker RJ, Awadallah NS, Kahook MY. Travoprost 0.004%/timolol 0.5% fixed combination. Drugs Today (Barc). 2007;43(2):77–83.
Schuman JS, Katz GJ, Lewis RA, et al. Efficacy and safety of a fixed combination of travoprost 0.004%/timolol 0.5% ophthalmic solution once daily for open-angle glaucoma or ocular hypertension. Am J Ophthalmol. 2005;140(2):242–250.
Barnebey HS, Orengo-Nania S, Flowers BE, et al. The safety and efficacy of travoprost 0.004%/timolol 0.5% fixed combination ophthalmic solution. Am J Ophthalmol. 2005;140(1):1–7.
Cantor LB. Ophthalmic generic drug approval process: implications for efficacy and safety. J Glaucoma. 1997;6(5):344–349.
Wirtz MK, Acott TS, Samples JR, Morrison JC. Prospects for genetic intervention in primary open-angle glaucoma. Drugs Aging. 1998;13(5):333–340.
Liu JH, Bouligny RP, Kripke DF, Weinreb RN. Nocturnal elevation of intraocular pressure is detectable in the sitting position. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2003;44(10):4439–4442.
Liu JH, Kripke DF, Hoffman RE, et al. Nocturnal elevation of intraocular pressure in young adults. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 1998;39(13):2707–2712.
Boger WP 3rd. Timolol: short term “escape” and long term “drift”. Ann Ophthalmol. 1979;11(8):1239–1242.
Barnes GE, Li B, Dean T, Chandler ML. Increased optic nerve head blood flow after 1 week of twice daily topical brinzolamide treatment in Dutch-belted rabbits. Surv Ophthalmol. 2000;44(Suppl 2):S131-S140.
Bergstrand IC, Heijl A, Harris A. Dorzolamide and ocular blood flow in previously untreated glaucoma patients: a controlled double-masked study. Acta Ophthalmol Scand. 2002;80(2):176–182.
Costagliola C, Campa C, Parmeggiani F, et al. Effect of 2% dorzolamide on retinal blood flow: a study on juvenile primary open-angle glaucoma patients already receiving 0.5% timolol. Br J Clin Pharmacol. 2007;63(3):376–379.
Grunwald JE, Mathur S, DuPont J. Effects of dorzolamide hydrochloride 2% on the retinal circulation. Acta Ophthalmol Scand. 1997;75(3):236–238.
Harris A, Arend O, Arend S, Martin B. Effects of topical dorzolamide on retinal and retrobulbar hemodynamics. Acta Ophthalmol Scand. 1996;74(6):569–572.
Martinez A, Gonzalez F, Capeans C, Perez R, Sanchez-Salorio M. Dorzolamide effect on ocular blood flow. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 1999;40(6):1270–1275.
Pillunat LE, Bohm AG, Koller AU, Schmidt KG, Klemm M, Richard G. Effect of topical dorzolamide on optic nerve head blood flow. Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol. 1999;237(6):495–500.
Hayreh SS. Pathogenesis of visual field defects. Role of the ciliary circulation. Br J Ophthalmol. 1970;54(5):289–311.
Hayreh SS. Pathogenesis of cupping of the optic disc. Br J Ophthalmol. 1974;58(10):863–876.
Hayreh SS, Revie IH, Edwards J. Vasogenic origin of visual field defects and optic nerve changes in glaucoma. Br J Ophthalmol. 1970;54(7):461–472.
Robinson JC, Kaufman PL. Phalloidin inhibits epinephrine’s and cytochalasin B’s facilitation of aqueous outflow. Arch Ophthalmol. 1994;112(12):1610–1613.
Robinson JC, Kaufman PL. Cytochalasin B potentiates epinephrine’s outflow facility-increasing effect. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 1991;32(5):1614–1618.
Melamed S, Kotas-Neumann R, Barak A, Epstein DL. The effect of intracamerally injected ethacrynic acid on intraocular pressure in patients with glaucoma. Am J Ophthalmol. 1992;113(5):508–512.
Epstein DL. Open angle glaucoma. Why not a cure? Arch Ophthalmol. 1987;105(9):1187–1188.
Rao PV, Deng PF, Kumar J, Epstein DL. Modulation of aqueous humor outflow facility by the Rho kinase-specific inhibitor Y-27632. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2001;42(5):1029–1037.
Friedman DS, Jampel HD, Congdon NG, Miller R, Quigley HA. The TRAVATAN Dosing Aid accurately records when drops are taken. Am J Ophthalmol. 2007;143(4):699–701.
Semes L, Shaikh AS. Evaluation of the Xal-Ease latanoprost delivery system. Optometry. 2007;78(1):30–33.
Bibliography
Brubaker RF. Flow of aqueous humor in humans [The Friedenwald Lecture]. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 1991;32(13):3145-3166.
Dailey RA, Brubaker RF, Bourne WM. The effects of timolol maleate and acetazolamide on the rate of aqueous formation in normal human subjects. Am J Ophthalmol. 1982;93(2):232-7.
Drance SM. The significance of the diurnal tension variations in normal and glaucomatous eyes. Arch Ophthalmol. 1960;64:494-501.
Dubiner HB, Sircy MD, Landry T, et al. Comparison of the diurnal ocular hypotensive efficacy of travoprost and latanoprost over a 44-hour period in patients with elevated intraocular pressure. Clin Ther. 2004;26(1):84-91.
Garcia-Feijoo J, Martinez-de-la-Casa JM, Castillo A, et al. Circadian IOP-lowering efficacy of travoprost 0.004% ophthalmic solution compared to latanoprost 0.005%. Curr Med Res Opin. 2006;22(9):1689-1697.
Ingram CJ, Brubaker RF. Effect of brinzolamide and dorzolamide on aqueous humor flow in human eyes. Am J Ophthalmol. 1999;128(3):292-296.
Kacere RD, Dolan JW, Brubaker RF. Intravenous epinephrine stimulates aqueous formation in the human eye. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 1992;33(10):2861-2865.
Kaufman PL, Barany EH. Loss of acute pilocarpine effect on outflow facility following surgical disinsertion and retrodisplacement of the ciliary muscle from the scleral spur in the cynomolgus monkey. Invest Ophthalmol. 1976;15(10):793-807.
Konstas AG, Boboridis K, Tzetzi D, et al. Twenty-four-hour control with latanoprost-timolol-fixed combination therapy vs latanoprost therapy. Arch Ophthalmol. 2005;123(7):898-902.
Konstas AG, Katsimbris JM, Lallos N, et al. Latanoprost 0.005% versus bimatoprost 0.03% in primary open-angle glaucoma patients. Ophthalmology. 2005;112(2):262-266.
Konstas AG, Lake S, Economou AI, et al. 24-Hour control with a latanoprost-timolol fixed combination vs timolol alone. Arch Ophthalmol. 2006;124(11):1553-1557.
Konstas AG, Maltezos AC, Gandi S, et al. Comparison of 24-hour intraocular pressure reduction with two dosing regimens of latanoprost and timolol maleate in patients with primary open-angle glaucoma. Am J Ophthalmol. 1999;128(1):15-20.
Konstas AG, Papapanos P, Tersis I, et al. Twenty-four-hour diurnal curve comparison of commercially available latanoprost 0.005% versus the timolol and dorzolamide fixed combination. Ophthalmology. 2003;110(7):1357-1360.
Larsson LI. Aqueous humor flow in normal human eyes treated with brimonidine and timolol, alone and in combination. Arch Ophthalmol. 2001;119(4):492-495.
Lim KS, Nau CB, O’Byrne MM, et al. Mechanism of action of bimatoprost, latanoprost, and travoprost in healthy subjects. A crossover study. Ophthalmology. 2008;115(5):790-795.
Liu JH, Kripke DF, Hoffman RE, et al. Nocturnal elevation of intraocular pressure in young adults. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 1998;39(13):2707-2712.
Liu JH, Kripke DF, Twa MD, et al. Twenty-four-hour pattern of intraocular pressure in the aging population. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 1999;40(12):2912-2917.
Liu JH, Kripke DF, Weinreb RN. Comparison of the nocturnal effects of once-daily timolol and latanoprost on intraocular pressure. Am J Ophthalmol. 2004;138(3):389-395.
Liu JH, Zhang X, Kripke DF, Weinreb RN. Twenty-four-hour intraocular pressure pattern associated with early glaucomatous changes. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2003;44(4):1586-1590.
Lutjen-Drecoll E, Wiendl H, Kaufman PL. Acute and chronic structural effects of pilocarpine on monkey outflow tissues. Trans Am Ophthalmol Soc. 1998;96:171-191
McCannel CA, Heinrich SR, Brubaker RF. Acetazolamide but not timolol lowers aqueous humor flow in sleeping humans. Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol. 1992;230(6):518-520.
Orzalesi N, Rossetti I, Bottoli A, et al. Comparison of latanoprost, brimonidine and a fixed combination of timolol and dorzolamide on circadian intraocular pressure in patients with primary open-angle glaucoma and ocular hypertension. Acta Ophthalmol Scand Suppl. 2002;236:55.
Orzalesi N, Rossetti L, Bottoli A, et al. The effect of latanoprost, brimonidine, and a fixed combination of timolol and dorzolamide on circadian intraocular pressure in patients with glaucoma or ocular hypertension. Arch Ophthalmol. 2003;121(4):453-457.
Orzalesi N, Rossetti L, Bottoli A, Fogagnolo P. Comparison of the effects of latanoprost, travoprost, and bimatoprost on circadian intraocular pressure in patients with glaucoma or ocular hypertension. Ophthalmology. 2006;113(2):239-246.
Orzalesi N, Rossetti L, Invernizzi T, et al. Effect of timolol, latanoprost, and dorzolamide on circadian IOP in glaucoma or ocular hypertension. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2000;41(9):2566-2573.
Ota T, Murata H, Sugimoto E, et al. Prostaglandin analogues and mouse intraocular pressure: effects of tafluprost, latanoprost, travoprost, and unoprostone, considering 24-hour variation. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2005;46(6):2006-2011.
Quaranta L, Gandolfo F, Turano R, et al. Effects of topical hypotensive drugs on circadian IOP, blood pressure, and calculated diastolic ocular perfusion pressure in patients with glaucoma. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2006;47(7):2917-2923.
Schadlu R, Maus TL, Nau CB, Brubaker RF. Comparison of the efficacy of apraclonidine and brimonidine as aqueous suppressants in humans. Arch Ophthalmol. 1998;116(11):1441-1444.
Sit AJ, Nau CB, McLaren JW, et al. Circadian variation of aqueous dynamics in young healthy adults. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2008;49(4):1473-1479.
Sit AJ, Weinreb RN, Crowston JG, et al. Sustained effect of travoprost on diurnal and nocturnal intraocular pressure. Am J Ophthalmol. 2006;141(6):1131-1133.
Topper JE, Brubaker RF. Effects of timolol, epinephrine, and acetazolamide on aqueous flow during sleep. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 1985;26(10):1315-1319.
Toris CB, Gleason ML, Camras CB, Yablonski ME. Effects of brimonidine on aqueous humor dynamics in human eyes. Arch Ophthalmol. 1995;113(12):1514-1517.
Toris CB, Zhan G, Fan S, et al. Effects of travoprost on aqueous humor dynamics in patients with elevated intraocular pressure. J Glaucoma. 2007;16(2):189-195.
Toris CB, Zhan GL, Camras CB, McLaughlin MA. Effects of travoprost on aqueous humor dynamics in monkeys. J Glaucoma. 2005;14(1):70-73.
Tsukamoto H, Larsson LI. Aqueous humor flow in normal human eyes treated with brimonidine and dorzolamide, alone and in combination. Arch Ophthalmol. 2004;122(2):190-193.
Walters TR, DuBiner HB, Carpenter SP, et al. 24-Hour IOP control with once-daily bimatoprost, timolol gel-forming solution, or latanoprost: a 1-month, randomized, comparative clinical trial. Surv Ophthalmol. 2004;49 Suppl 1:S26-S35.
Weinreb RN, Toris CB, Gabelt BT, et al. Effects of prostaglandins on the aqueous humor outflow pathways. Surv Ophthalmol. 2002;47 Suppl 1:S53-S64.
Bibliography
Gerber SL, Cantor LB, Craig Brater D. Systemic drug interactions with topical glaucoma medications. Surv Ophthalmol. 1990;35(3):205-218.
Winfield AJ, Jessiman D, Williams A, Esakowitz L. A study of the causes of non-compliance by patients prescribed eyedrops. Br J Ophthalmol. 1990;74:477-480.
Bibliography
Baudouin C, de Lunardo C. Short term comparative study of topical 2% carteolol with and without benzalkonium chloride in healthy volunteers. Br J Ophthalmol. 1998;82:39-42.
Baudouin C, Pisella PJ, Fillacier K, et al. Ocular surface inflammatory changes induced by topical antiglaucoma drugs Ophthalmology. 1999;106(3):556-563.
Baudouin C, Riancho L, Warnet J, et al. In vitro studies of antiglaucomatous prostaglandin analogues: travoprost with and without benzalkonium chloride and preserved latanoprost. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2007;48:4123-4128.
Bourcier T, DeSaint Jean M, Brignole F, Goguel A, Baudouin C. Expression of CD40 and CD40 ligand in the human conjunctival epithelium. Curr Eye Res. 2000;20:85-94.
Broadway DC, Grierson I, O’Brien C, et al. Adverse effects of topical antiglaucoma medication. Arch Ophthalmol. 1994;112:1437-1445.
De Saint Jean M, Debbasch C, Brignole F, Warnet JM, Baudouin C. Relationship between in vitro toxicity of benzalkonium chloride (BAC) and preservative-induced dry eye. Adv Exp Med Biol. 2002;506:697-702.
Fechtner R, Budenz, D, Godfrey D. Prevalence of ocular surface disease symptoms in glaucoma patients on IOP-lowering medications. Poster presented at: The 18th Annual Meeting of the American Glaucoma Society; March 8, 2006; Washington, DC.)
Horsley MB, Kahook MY. Changes in tear break-up time and ocular surface disease index after initiation of travoprost with Sofzia in patients previously using latanoprost with benzalkonium chloride. Poster presented at: The 18th Annual Meeting of the American Glaucoma Society; March 8, 2006; Washington, DC.
Kahook MY, Noecker RJ. Comparison of corneal and conjunctival changes after dosing of travoprost preserved with Sofzia latanoprost with 0.02% benzalkonium chloride, and preservative-free artificial tears. Cornea. 2008;27(3):339-343.
Leung EW, Medeiros FA, Weinreb RN. Prevalence of ocular surface disease in glaucoma patients. J Glaucoma. 2008;17(5):350-355.
Management and therapy of dry eye disease: report of the management and therapy subcommittee of the international dry eye workshop (2007). Ocul Surf. 2007;5(2):163-178.
Miljanovic B. Dana R. Sullivan DA. Schaumberg DA. Impact of dry eye syndrome on vision-related quality of life. [Journal Article. Randomized Controlled Trial. Research Support, N.I.H., Extramural. Research Support] Am J Ophthalmol. 2007;143(3):409-415.
Miyake K, Ibaraki N, Goto Y, et al. ESCRS Binkhorst lecture 2002: pseudophakic preservative maculopathy. J Cataract Refract Surg. 2003;29:1800-1810.
Montes-Mico R. Role of the tear film in the optical quality of the human eye. J Cataract Refract Surg. 2007;33(9):1631-1635.
Noecker R. Effects of common ophthalmic preservatives on ocular health. Adv Ther. 2001;18:205-215.
Noecker RJ, Herrygers LA, Anwaruddin R. Corneal and conjunctival changes caused by commonly used glaucoma medications. Cornea. 2004;23(5):490-496.
Ocular Surface 2007 Report of the International Dry Eye Workshop. Ocul Surf. 2007;5(2):65-206.
Sasaki H, Nagano T, Yamamura K, Nishida K, Nakamura J. Ophthalmic preservatives as absorption promoters for ocular drug delivery. J Pharm Pharmacol. 1995;47(9):703-707.
Schiffman RM, Christianson MD, Jacobsen G, Hirsch JD, Reis BL. Reliability and validity of the ocular surface disease index. Arch Ophthalmol. 2000;118:615-621
Schiffman RM, Christianson MD, Jacobsen G, Hirsch JD, Reis BL. Reliability and validity of the ocular surface disease index [see comment]. Journal Article Research Support, Non-U.S. Gov’t] Arch Ophthalmol. 2000;118(5):615-621.
Bibliography
American Academy of Ophthalmology Glaucoma Panel. Primary Open-Angle Glaucoma. AAO Preferred Practice Patterns 2005; 1-30.
Alward WL. Medical management of glaucoma. N Engl J Med. 1998;339(18):1298-1307.
Friedland BR, Maren TH. The role of carbonic anhydrase in lens ion transport and metabolism. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 1984;429:582-586.
Johnson KK, Green DL, Rife JP, Limon L. Sulfonamide cross-reactivity: fact or fiction? Ann Pharmacother. 2005;39:290-301.
Kaur IP, Smitha R, Aggarwal D, Kapil M. Acetazolamide: future perspective in topical glaucoma therapeutics. Int J Pharm. 2002;248(1-2):1-14.
Sabri K, Kevin AV. The additive effect of topical dorzolamide and systemic acetazolamide in pediatric glaucoma. J AAPOS. 2006;10(5):464-468.
Bibliography
Allingham RR, Damji K, Freedman S, et al. Hyperosmotics. In: Allingham RR, Damji KF, Freedman S, Moroi SE, eds. Shields’ Textbook of Glaucoma. 5th ed. Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 2005.
Awasthi P, Mathur SP, Srivastava MP. Oral glycerol in cataract surgery. Br J Ophthalmol. 1967;51:130-131.
de Ocampo G, Balolong ED, Bernardino V Jr. Pre-operative use of mannitol as ocular anti-hypertensive agent. Eye Ear Nose Throat Mon. 1965;44:75-82.
Dudley DF, Leen MM, Kinyoun JL, et al. Retinal hemorrhages associated with ocular decompression after glaucoma surgery. Ophthalmic Surg Lasers. 1996;27:147-150.
Feitl ME, Krupin T. Hyperosmotic agents. In: Ritch R, Shields MB, Krupin T, eds. The Glaucomas. 2nd ed. St. Louis, MO: Mosby-Year Book; 1996.
Hill K. Ocular osmotherapy with mannitol. Am J Ophthalmol. 1964;58:79-83.
Kolker AE. Hyperosmotic agents in glaucoma. Invest Ophthalmol. 1970;9:418-423.
Maris PJ Jr, Mandal AK, Netland PA. Medical therapy of pediatric glaucoma and glaucoma in pregnancy. Ophthalmol Clin North Am. 2005;18:461-468.
McCurdy DK, Schneider B, Scheie HG. Oral glycerol: the mechanism of intraocular hypotension. Am J Ophthalmol. 1966;61:1244-1249.
Miettinen R, Airaksinen PJ, Pihlajaniemi R, et al. Preoperative timolol and ocular compression in cataract surgery. Acta Ophthalmol (Copenh). 1982;60:622-627.
O’Keeffe M, Nabil M. The use of mannitol in intraocular surgery. Ophthalmic Surg. 1983;14:55-56.
Singh A. Medical therapy of glaucoma. Ophthalmol Clin North Am. 2005;18:397-408.
Smith EW, Drance SM. Reduction of human intraocular pressure with intravenous mannitol. Arch Ophthalmol. 1962;68:734-737.
Speaker MG, Guerriero PN, Met JA, et.al. A case-control study of risk factors for intraoperative suprachoroidal expulsive hemorrhage. Ophthalmology. 1991;98:202-209.
Taylor DM. Expulsive hemorrhage; some observations and comments. Trans Am Ophthalmol Soc. 1974;72:157-169.
Tsai JC, Forbes M. Hyperosmotic agents used to control acute elevation of intraocular pressure in glaucoma. In: Tsai JC, Forbes M, eds. Medical Management of Glaucoma. 2nd ed. West Islip, NY: Professional Communications Inc; 2004.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2010 Springer Science+Business Media, LLC
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Schacknow, P.N., Samples, J.R. (2010). Medications Used to Treat Glaucoma. In: Schacknow, P., Samples, J. (eds) The Glaucoma Book. Springer, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-76700-0_51
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-76700-0_51
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, New York, NY
Print ISBN: 978-0-387-76699-7
Online ISBN: 978-0-387-76700-0
eBook Packages: MedicineMedicine (R0)