Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

The Epidemiology of Bacterial Resistance to Antimicrobial Agents

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Book cover Bacterial Infections of Humans

Infectious diseases have continually played a role in shaping human history. The plague pandemic of the 13th century claimed approximately 25% of the world’s population. Dysentery decimated the forces of Napoleon, and tuberculosis, also known as “the white plague,” condemned many of history’s most influential leaders, writers, artists, and scientists to untimely deaths, often in their most productive years. Thus, it was assumed that with the introduction of antimicrobial agents into clinical medicine during the 20th century, the conquest of infectious diseases was likely to be close at hand. Yet, a closer examination of the medical literature beginning in the 1940s reveals an ominous trend that would be repeated over and over again throughout the next several decades: The discovery of virtually every new antimicrobial agent effective against bacteria was followed sooner or later by the recognition of bacterial resistance to the agent. How bacteria develop resistance to antimicrobial agents and how resistant microorganisms spread in hospitals, other health-care settings, and communities will be the focus of this chapter.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 259.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 329.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 329.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  1. Abraham, E. P., and Chain, E. An enzyme from bacteria able to destroy penicillin. Nature. 146: 837–839, 1940.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  2. Kirby, W. M. M. Extraction of a highly potent penicillin inactivator from penicillin resistant staphylococci. Science. 99: 452–455, 1944.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  3. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Extensively drug-resistant tuberculosis, United States, 1993–2006. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 55: 301–305, 2006.

    Google Scholar 

  4. Cohen, M. L. Epidemiology of drug resistance: implications for a post-antimicrobial era. Science. 257: 1050–1055, 1992.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  5. Burke, J. P. Antibiotic resistance—squeezing the balloon? JAMA. 280: 1270–1271, 1998.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  6. Swartz, M. N. Use of antimicrobial agents and drug resistance. New Eng J Med. 337: 491–492, 1997.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  7. Leclercq, R., Derlot, E., Duval, J., and Courvalin, P. Plasmid-mediated resistance to vancomycin and teicoplanin in Enterococcus faecium. N Engl J Med. 319: 157–161, 1988.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  8. McGowan, J. E., Jr. Minimizing antimicrobial resistance: the key role of the infectious diseases physician. Clin Infect Dis. 38: 939–942, 2004.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  9. McDonald, L. C. Trends in antimicrobial resistance in health care-associated pathogens and effect on treatment. Clin Infect Dis. 42 Suppl 2: S65–71, 2006.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  10. Tenover, F. C. Development and spread of bacterial resistance to antimicrobial agents: an overview. Clin Infect Dis. 33(Suppl 3): S108–S115, 2001.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  11. Wood, M. J., and Moellering, R. C., Jr. Microbial resistance: bacteria and more. Clin Infect Dis. 36: S2–3, 2003.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  12. Diekema, D. J., BootsMiller, B. J., Vaughn, T. E., Woolson, R. F., Yankey, J. W., Ernst, E. J., Flach, S. D., Ward, M. M., Franciscus, C. L., Pfaller, M. A., and Doebbeling, B. N. Antimicrobial resistance trends and outbreak frequency in United States hospitals. Clin Infect Dis. 38: 78–85, 2004.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  13. McGowan, J. E., Jr. Resistance in nonfermenting gram-negative bacteria: multidrug resistance to the maximum. Am J Med. 119: S29–36; discussion S62–70, 2006.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  14. Rehm, S. J., and Weber, J. T. The far-reaching impact of antimicrobial resistance. Clin Infect Dis. 45 (Suppl 2): S97–S98, 2007.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  15. Tenover, F. C., McDougal, L. K., Goering, R. V., Killgore, G., Projan, S. J., Patel, J. B., and Dunman, P. M. Characterization of a strain of community-associated methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus widely disseminated in the United States. J Clin Microbiol. 44: 108–118, 2006.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  16. Rice, L. B. Antimicrobial resistance in gram-positive bacteria. Am J Med. 119: S11–19; discussion S62–70, 2006.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  17. Burke, C., Armand-Lefevre, L., Lolom, I., Guerinot, W., Deblangy, C., Ruimy R, Andremont, A., and Lucet, J-C. Epidemiology of multidrug-resistant bacteria in patients with long stays. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 28: 1255–1260, 2007.

    Google Scholar 

  18. Shorr, A. F. Epidemiology of staphylococcal resistance. Clin Infect Dis. 45 (Suppl 3): S171–S176, 2007.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  19. Seybold, U., Kourbatova, E. V., Johnson, J. G., Halvosa, S. J., Wang, Y. F., King, M. D., Ray, S. M., and Blumberg, H. M. Emergence of community-associated methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus USA300 genotype as a major cause of health care-associated blood stream infections. Clin Infect Dis. 42: 647–656, 2006.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  20. Neu, H. C. Overview of mechanisms of bacterial resistance. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis. 12: Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis, 1989.

    Google Scholar 

  21. Bonnet, R. Growing group of extended-spectrum beta-lactamases: the CTX-M enzymes. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 48: 1–14, 2004.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  22. Normark, B. H., and Normark, S. Evolution and spread of antibiotic resistance. J Intern Med. 252: 91–106, 2002.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  23. Edlin, B. R., Tokars, J. I., Grieco, M. H., Crawford, J. T., Williams, J., Sordillo, E. M., et al. An outbreak of multidrug resistant tuberculosis among hospitalized patients with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. N Engl J Med. 326: 1514–1521, 1992.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  24. John, J. F., Jr., and Rice, L. B. The microbial genetics of antibiotic cycling. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 21(Suppl): S22–S31, 2000.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  25. Hawkey, P. M. The origins and molecular basis of antibiotic resistance. Brit Med J. 317: 657–660, 1998.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  26. Lockhart, S. R., Abramson, M. A., Beekmann, S. E., Gallagher, G., Riedel, S., Diekema, D. J., Quinn, J. Pl, and Doern, G. V. Antimicrobial resistance among gram-negative bacilli causing infections in intensive care unit patients in the United States between 1993 and 2004. J Clin Microbiol. 45: 3352–3359, 2007.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  27. McGowan, J. E., Jr., and Tenover, F. C. Confronting bacterial resistance in healthcare settings: a crucial role for microbiologists. Nat Rev Microbiol. 2: 251–258, 2004.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  28. Trick, W. E., Kuehnert, M. J., Quirk, S. B., Arduino, M. J., Aguero, S. M., Carson, L. A., Hill, B. C., Banerjee, S. N., and Jarvis, W. R. Regional dissemination of vancomycin-resistant enterococci resulting from interfacility transfer of colonized patients. J Infect Dis. 180: 391–396, 1999.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  29. Robicsek, A., Strahilevitz, J., Jacoby, G. A., Macielag, M., Abbanat, D., Park, C. H., Bush, K., and Hooper, D. C. Fluoroquinolone-modifying enzyme: a new adaptation of a common aminoglycoside acetyltransferase. Nat Med. 12: 83–88, 2006.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  30. Harris, A., Torres-Viera, C., Venkataraman, L., DeGirolami, P., Samore, M., and Carmeli, Y. Epidemiology and clinical outcomes of patients with multiresistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Clin Infect Dis. 28: 1128–1133, 1999.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  31. Kollef, M. H. The intensive care unit as a research laboratory: developing strategies to prevent antimicrobial resistance. Surg Infect (Larchmt). 7: 85–99, 2006.

    Google Scholar 

  32. Struelens, M. J. Multidisciplinary antimicrobial management teams: the way forward to control antimicrobial resistance in hospitals. Curr Opin Infect Dis. 16: 305–307, 2003.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  33. Wilke, M. S., Lovering, A. L., and Strynadka, N. C. Beta-lactam antibiotic resistance: a current structural perspective. Curr Opin Microbiol. 8: 525–533, 2005.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  34. Smith, A. M., and Klugman, K. P. Amino acid mutations essential to production of an altered PBP 2X conferring high-level beta-lactam resistance in a clinical isolate of Streptococcus pneumoniae. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 49: 4622–4627, 2005.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  35. Paterson, D. L., and Bonomo, R. A. Extended-spectrum beta-lactamases: a clinical update. Clin Microbiol Rev. 18: 657–686, 2005.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  36. Yigit, H., Queenan, A. M., Anderson, G. J., Domenech-Sanchez, A., Biddle, J. W., Steward, C. D., Alberti, S., Bush, K., and Tenover, F. C. Novel carbapenem-hydrolyzing beta-lactamase, KPC-1, from a carbapenem-resistant strain of Klebsiella pneumoniae. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 45: 1151–1161, 2001.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  37. Bradford, P. A., Bratu, S., Urban, C., Visalli, M., Mariano, N., Landman, D., Rahal, J. J., Brooks, S., Cebular, S., and Quale, J. Emergence of carbapenem-resistant Klebsiella species possessing the class A carbapenem-hydrolyzing KPC-2 and inhibitor-resistant TEM-30 beta-lactamases in New York City. Clin Infect Dis. 39: 55–60, 2004.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  38. Gaynor, M., and Mankin, A. S. Macrolide antibiotics: binding site, mechanism of action, resistance. Curr Top Med Chem. 3: 949–961, 2003.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  39. Shaw, K. J., Rather, P. N., Hare, R. S., and Miller, G. H. Molecular genetics of aminoglycoside resistance genes and familial relationships of the aminoglycoside-modifying enzymes. Microbiol Rev. 57: 138–163, 1993.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  40. Davies, J. Inactivation of antibiotics and the dissemination of resistance genes. Science. 264: 375–382, 1994.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  41. Speer, B. S., Shoemaker, N. B., and Salyers, A. A. Bacterial resistance to tetracycline: mechanisms, transfer, and clinical significance. Clin Microbiol Rev. 5: 387–399, 1992.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  42. Olson, M. W., Ruzin, A., Feyfant, E., Rush, T. S., 3rd, O’Connell, J., and Bradford, P. A. Functional, biophysical, and structural bases for antibacterial activity of tigecycline. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 50: 2156–2166, 2006.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  43. Skold, O. Resistance to trimethoprim and sulfonamides. Vet Res. 32: 261–273, 2001.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  44. Courvalin, P. Vancomycin resistance in gram-positive cocci. Clin Infect Dis. 42 Suppl 1: S25–34, 2006.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  45. Depardieu, F., Perichon, B., and Courvalin, P. Detection of the van alphabet and identification of enterococci and staphylococci at the species level by multiplex PCR. J Clin Microbiol. 42: 5857–5860, 2004.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  46. Cui, L., Murakami, H., Kuwahara-Arai, K., Hanaki, H., and Hiramatsu, K. Contribution of a thickened cell wall and its glutamine nonamidated component to the vancomycin resistance expressed by Staphylococcus aureus Mu50. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 44: 2276–2285, 2000.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  47. Hanaki, H., Kuwahara-Arai, K., Boyle-Vavra, S., Daum, R. S., Labischinski, H., and Hiramatsu, K. Activated cell-wall synthesis is associated with vancomycin resistance in methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus clinical strains Mu3 and Mu50. J Antimicrob Chemother. 42: 199–209, 1998.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  48. Tenover, F. C., Lancaster, M. V., Hill, B. C., Steward, C. D., Stocker, S. A., Hancock, G. A., O’Hara, C. M., Clark, N. C., and Hiramatsu, K. Characterization of staphylococci with reduced susceptibilities to vancomycin and other glycopeptides. J Clin Microbiol. 36: 1020–1027, 1998.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  49. Andriole, V. T. The quinolones: past, present, and future. Clin Infect Dis. 41 Suppl 2: S113–119, 2005.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  50. Jacoby, G. A. Mechanisms of resistance to quinolones. Clin Infect Dis. 41 Suppl 2: S120–126, 2005.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  51. Robicsek, A., Jacoby, G. A., and Hooper, D. C. The worldwide emergence of plasmid-mediated quinolone resistance. Lancet Infect Dis. 6: 629–640, 2006.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  52. Pillai, S. K., Sakoulas, G., Wennersten, C., Eliopoulos, G. M., Moellering, R. C., Jr., Ferraro, M. J., and Gold, H. S. Linezolid resistance in Staphylococcus aureus: characterization and stability of resistant phenotype. J Infect Dis. 186: 1603–1607, 2002.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  53. Woodford, N., Tysall, L., Auckland, C., Stockdale, M. W., Lawson, A. J., Walker, R. A., and Livermore, D. M. Detection of oxazolidinone-resistant Enterococcus faecalis and Enterococcus faecium strains by real-time PCR and PCR-restriction fragment length polymorphism analysis. J Clin Microbiol. 40: 4298–4300, 2002.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  54. Paterson, D. L. The role of antimicrobial management programs in optimizing antibiotic prescribing within hospitals. Clin Infect Dis. 42 Suppl 2: S90–95, 2006.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  55. Knothe, H., Shah, P., Krcmery, V., Antal, M., and Mitsuhashi, S. Transferable resistance to cefotaxime, cefoxitin, cefamandole and cefuroxime in clinical isolates of Klebsiella pneumoniae and Serratia marcescens. Infection. 11: 315–317, 1983.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  56. DeFlaun, M. F., and Levy, S. B. Genes and their varied hosts. In S. B. Levy, and R. V. Miller (Eds.), Gene transfer in the environment, New York: McGraw Hill Publishing Co, 1991. pp. 1–32.

    Google Scholar 

  57. Murray, B. E., Mederski-Samoraj, B., Foster, S. K., Brunton, J. L., and Harford, P. In vitro studies of plasmid-mediated penicillinase from Streptococcus faecalis suggest a staphylococcal origin. J Clin Invest. 77: 289–293, 1986.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  58. Kaufhold, A., Podbielski, A., Horaud, T., and Ferrieri, P. Identical genes confer high-level resistance to gentamicin upon Enterococcus faecalis, Enterococcus faecium, and Streptococcus agalactiae. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 36: 1215–1218, 1992.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  59. Rovers, M. M., Glasziou, P., Appelman, C. L., Burke, P., McCormick, D. P., Damoiseaux, R. A., Gaboury, I., Little, P., and Hoes, A. W. Antibiotics for acute otitis media: a meta-analysis with individual patient data. Lancet. 368: 1429–1435, 2006.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  60. Kieke, A. L., Borchardt, M. A., Kieke, B. A., Spencer, S. K., Vandermause, M. F., Smith, K. E., Jawahir, S. L., and Belongia, E. A. Use of Streptogramin Growth Promoters in Poultry and Isolation of Streptogramin-Resistant Enterococcus faecium from Humans. J Infect Dis. 194: 1200–1208, 2006.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  61. Wegener, H. C. Antibiotics in animal feed and their role in resistance development. Curr Opin Microbiol. 6: 439–445, 2003.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  62. Aarestrup, F. M. Veterinary drug usage and antimicrobial resistance in bacteria of animal origin. Basic Clin Pharmacol Toxicol. 96: 271–281, 2005.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  63. Akiba, T., Koyama, K., Ishiki, Y., Kimura, S., and Fukushima, T. On the mechanism of the development of multiple-drug-resistant clones of Shigella. Jpn J Microbiol. 4: 219–227, 1960.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  64. Tompkins, L. S., Plorde, J. J., and Falkow, S. Molecular analysis of R-factors from multiresistant nosocomial isolates. J Infect Dis. 141: 625–636, 1980.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  65. O’Brien, T. F., Pla, M. P., Mayer, K. H., Kishi, H., Gilleece, E., Syvanen, M., and Hopkins, J. D. Intercontinental spread of a new antibiotic resistance gene on an epidemic plasmid. Science. 230: 87–88, 1985.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  66. Grinsted, J., de la Cruz, F., and Schmitt, R. The Tn21 subgroup of bacterial transposable elements. Plasmid. 24: 163–189, 1990.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  67. Clewell, D. B., and Gawron-Burke, C. Conjugative transposons and the dissemination of antibiotic resistance in streptococci. Annu Rev Microbiol. 40: 635–659, 1986.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  68. Shoemaker, N. B., Smith, M. D., and Guild, W. R. Organization and transfer of heterologous chloramphenicol and tetracycline resistance genes in pneumococcus. J Bacteriol. 139: 432–441, 1979.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  69. Shoemaker, N. B., Barber, R. D., and Salyers, A. A. Cloning and characterization of a Bacteroides conjugal tetracycline-erythromycin resistance element by using a shuttle cosmid vector. J Bacteriol. 171: 1294–1302, 1989.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  70. Norrby, S. R. Integrons: adding another threat to the use of antibiotic therapy. Clin Infect Dis. 41: 10–11, 2005.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  71. Fridkin, S. K., Steward, C. D., Edwards, J. R., Pryor, E. R., McGowan, J. E., Jr., Archibald, L. K., Gaynes, R. P., Tenover, F. C., and Project Intensive Care Antimicrobial Resistance Epidemiology (ICARE) Hospitals Surveillance of antimicrobial use and antimicrobial resistance in United States hospitals: Project ICARE phase 2. Clin. Infect. Dis. 29: 245–252, 1999.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  72. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention National Nosocomial Infections Surveillance (NNIS) System report, data summary from January 1990–May 1999, issued June 1999. Am J Infect Control. 27: 520–532, 1999.

    Google Scholar 

  73. Fridkin, S. K., Hill, H. A., Volkova, N. V., Edwards, J. R., Lawton, R. M., Gaynes, R. P., and McGowan, J. E., Jr. Temporal changes in prevalence of antimicrobial resistance in 23 US hospitals. Emerg Infect Dis. 8: 697–701, 2002.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  74. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention National Nosocomial Infections Surveillance (NNIS) System Report, data summary from January 1992 to June 2002, issued August 2002. Am J Infect Control. 30: 458–475, 2002.

    Google Scholar 

  75. Rodriguez-Bano, J., and Paterson, D. L. A change in the epidemiology of infections due to extended-spectrum beta-lactamase-producing organisms. Clin Infect Dis. 42: 935–937, 2006.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  76. Fridkin, S. K., Hageman, J. C., Morrison, M., Sanza, L. T., Como-Sabetti, K., Jernigan, J. A., Harriman, K., Harrison, L. H., Lynfield, R., and Farley, M. M. Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus disease in three communities. N Engl J Med. 352: 1436–1444, 2005.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  77. Fridkin, S. K., Hageman, J., McDougal, L. K., Mohammed, J., Jarvis, W. R., Perl, T. M., and Tenover, F. C. Epidemiological and microbiological characterization of infections caused by Staphylococcus aureus with reduced susceptibility to vancomycin, United States, 1997–2001. Clin Infect Dis. 36: 429–439, 2003.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  78. Chang, S., Sievert, D. M., Hageman, J. C., Boulton, M. L., Tenover, F. C., Downes, F. P., Shah, S., Rudrik, J. T., Pupp, G. R., Brown, W. J., Cardo, D., and Fridkin, S. K. Infection with vancomycin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus containing the vanA resistance gene. N Engl J Med. 348: 1342–1347, 2003.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  79. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Vancomycin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus—Pennsylvania, 2002. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 51: 902, 2002.

    Google Scholar 

  80. Raney, P. M., Williams, P. P., McGowan, J. E., and Tenover, F. C. Validation of Vitek version 7.01 software for testing staphylococci against vancomycin. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis. 43: 135–140, 2002.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  81. Liu, C., and Chambers, H. F. Staphylococcus aureus with heterogeneous resistance to vancomycin: epidemiology, clinical significance, and critical assessment of diagnostic methods. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 47: 3040–3045, 2003.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  82. Bush, K. Antibacterial drug discovery in the 21st century. Clin Microbiol Infect. 10 Suppl 4: 10–17, 2004.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  83. Schito, G. C. The importance of the development of antibiotic resistance in Staphylococcus aureus. Clin Microbiol Infect. 12 Suppl 1: 3–8, 2006.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  84. Paterson, D. L. Resistance in gram-negative bacteria: enterobacteriaceae. Am J Med. 119: S20–28; discussion S62–70, 2006.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  85. Pavleas, J., Skiada, A., Daikos, G. L., Rigas, K., Mega, A., Archondoulis, N., Vernikos, P., Salatas, K., and Thomopoulos, G. Colistin in the treatment of life-threatening infections. Int J Antimicrob Agents. 28: 374–376, 2006.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  86. Falagas, M. E., Kasiakou, S. K., Kofteridis, D. P., Roditakis, G., and Samonis, G. Effectiveness and nephrotoxicity of intravenous colistin for treatment of patients with infections due to polymyxin-only-susceptible (POS) gram-negative bacteria. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis. 25: 596–599, 2006.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  87. Paterson, D. L. The epidemiological profile of infections with multidrug-resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Acinetobacter species. Clin Infect Dis. 43 Suppl 2: S43–48, 2006.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  88. Tenover, F. C. Mechanisms of antimicrobial resistance in bacteria. Am J Med. 119: S3–10; discussion S62–70, 2006.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  89. Goldstein, E. J., Citron, D. M., Warren, Y. A., Tyrrell, K. L., Merriam, C. V., and Fernandez, H. T. In vitro activities of dalbavancin and 12 other agents against 329 aerobic and anaerobic gram-positive isolates recovered from diabetic foot infections. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 50: 2875–2879, 2006.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  90. McCarthy, M. Resistant bacteria spread through US communities. 70% of isolates are now resistant to all beta-lactam antibiotics. Lancet. 362: 1554–1555, 2003.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  91. Pearman, J. W. 2004 Lowbury Lecture: the Western Australian experience with vancomycin-resistant enterococci—from disaster to ongoing control. J Hosp Infect. 63: 14–26, 2006.

    Google Scholar 

  92. Reddy, P., Malczynski, M., Obias, A., Reiner, S., Jin, N., Huang, J., Noskin, G. A., and Zembower, T. Screening for extended-spectrum beta-lactamase-producing Enterobacteriaceae among high risk patients and rates of subsequent bacteremia. Clin Infect Dis. 45: 846–852.

    Google Scholar 

  93. Kahlmeter, G., and Brown, D. F. Resistance surveillance studies—comparability of results and quality assurance of methods. J Antimicrob Chemother. 50: 775–777, 2002.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  94. Draghi, D. C., Sheehan, D. F., Hogan, P., and Sahm, D. F. Current antimicrobial resistance profiles among methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus encountered in the outpatient setting. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis. 2006.

    Google Scholar 

  95. Appelbaum, P. C. The emergence of vancomycin-intermediate and vancomycin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. Clin Microbiol Infect. 12 Suppl 1: 16–23, 2006.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  96. Cosgrove, S. E., Carroll, K. C., and Perl, T. M. Staphylococcus aureus with reduced susceptibility to vancomycin. Clin Infect Dis. 39: 539–545, 2004.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  97. Gemmell, C. G., Edwards, D. I., Fraise, A. P., Gould, F. K., Ridgway, G. L., and Warren, R. E. Guidelines for the prophylaxis and treatment of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) infections in the UK. J Antimicrob Chemother. 57: 589–608, 2006.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  98. Muto, C. A., Jernigan, J. A., Ostrowsky, B. E., Richet, H. M., Jarvis, W. R., Boyce, J. M., and Farr, B. M. SHEA guideline for preventing nosocomial transmission of multidrug-resistant strains of Staphylococcus aureus and enterococcus. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 24: 362–386, 2003.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  99. Willems, R. J., Top, J., van Santen, M., Robinson, D. A., Coque, T. M., Baquero, F., Grundmann, H., and Bonten, M. J. Global spread of vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus faecium from distinct nosocomial genetic complex. Emerg Infect Dis. 11: 821–828, 2005.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  100. Menichetti, F. Current and emerging serious Gram-positive infections. Clin Microbiol Infect. 11 Suppl 3: 22–28, 2005.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  101. Siegel, J. D., Rheinhart, E., Jackson, M., Chiarello, L., and Healthcare Infection Control Practices Advisory Committee. Management of multi-drug resistant organisms in healthcare settings, 2006. In, Atlanta: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2006. pp. 73 pages.

    Google Scholar 

  102. Fridkin, S. K., Edwards, J. R., Courval, J. M., Hill, H., Tenover, F. C., Lawton, R., Gaynes, R. P., McGowan, J. E., Jr., Intensive Care Antimicrobial Resistance Epidemiology (ICARE) Project, and National Nosocomial Infections Surveillance (NNIS) System Hospitals The effect of vancomycin and third-generation cephalosporins on prevalence of vancomycin-resistant enterococci in 126 U.S. adult intensive care units. Ann Intern Med. 135: 175–183, 2001.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  103. Silveira, F., Fujitani, S., and Paterson, D. L. Antibiotic-resistant infections in the critically ill adult. Clin Lab Med. 24: 329–341, 2004.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  104. Fournier, P. E., and Richet, H. The epidemiology and control of Acinetobacter baumannii in health care facilities. Clin Infect Dis. 42: 692–699, 2006.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  105. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Acinetobacter baumannii infections among patients at military medical facilities treating injured U.S. service members, 2002–2004. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 53: 1063–1066, 2004.

    Google Scholar 

  106. Zhang, R., Eggleston, K., Rotimi, V., and Zeckhauser, R. J. Antibiotic resistance as a global threat: Evidence from China, Kuwait and the United States. Global Health. 2: 6, 2006.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  107. Niyogi, S. K., Sarkar, K., Lalmalsawma, P., Pallai, N., and Bhattacharya, S. K. An outbreak of bacillary dysentery caused by quinolone-resistant Shigella dysenteriae type 1 in a northeastern state of India. J Health Popul Nutr. 22: 97, 2004.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  108. Rahman, M., Siddique, A. K., Shoma, S., Rashid, H., Salam, M. A., Ahmed, Q. S., Nair, G. B., and Breiman, R. F. Emergence of multidrug-resistant Salmonella enterica serotype Typhi with decreased ciprofloxacin susceptibility in Bangladesh. Epidemiol Infect. 134: 433–438, 2006.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  109. Levison, M. E., and Fung, S. Community-associated methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus: reconsideration of therapeutic options. Curr Infect Dis Rep. 8: 23–30, 2006.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  110. Moellering, R. C., Jr. The growing menace of community-acquired methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. Ann Intern Med. 144: 368–370, 2006.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  111. Sun, H. Y., Chen, S. Y., Chang, S. C., Pan, S. C., Su, C. P., and Chen, Y. C. Community-onset Escherichia coli and Klebsiella pneumoniae bacteremia: influence of health care exposure on antimicrobial susceptibility. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis. 2006.

    Google Scholar 

  112. Manges, A. R., Natarajan, P., Solberg, O. D., Dietrich, P. S., and Riley, L. W. The changing prevalence of drug-resistant Escherichia coli clonal groups in a community: evidence for community outbreaks of urinary tract infections. Epidemiol Infect. 134: 425–431, 2006.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  113. Kallen, A. J., Welch, H. G., and Sirovich, B. E. Current antibiotic therapy for isolated urinary tract infections in women. Arch Intern Med. 166: 635–639, 2006.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  114. Klugman, K. Pneumococcal resistance to antibiotics. Clin Microbiol Rev. 3: 171–196, 1990.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  115. Johnson, D. M., Stilwell, M. G., Fritsche, T. R., and Jones, R. N. Emergence of multidrug-resistant Streptococcus pneumoniae: report from the SENTRY Antimicrobial Surveillance Program (1999–2003). Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis. 2006.

    Google Scholar 

  116. Lynch, J. P., 3rd, and Zhanel, G. G. Escalation of antimicrobial resistance among Streptococcus pneumoniae: implications for therapy. Semin Respir Crit Care Med. 26: 575–616, 2005.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  117. Hoffman, J., Cetron, M. S., Farley, M. M., Baughman, W. S., Facklam, R. R., Elliott, J. A., Deaver, K. A., and Breiman, R. F. The prevalence of drug-resistant Streptococcus pneumoniae in Atlanta. N Engl J Med. 333: 481–486, 1995.

    Google Scholar 

  118. Okeke, I. N., Laxminarayan, R., Bhutta, Z. A., Duse, A. G., Jenkins, P., O’Brien, T. F., Pablos-Mendez, A., and Klugman, K. P. Antimicrobial resistance in developing countries. Part I: Recent trends and current status. Lancet Infect Dis. 5: 481–493, 2005.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  119. Peterson, L. R. Penicillins for treatment of pneumococcal pneumonia: does in vitro resistance really matter? Clin Infect Dis. 42: 224–233, 2006.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  120. Feikin, D. R., Klugman, K. P., Facklam, R. R., Zell, E. R., Schuchat, A., and Whitney, C. G. Increased prevalence of pediatric pneumococcal serotypes in elderly adults. Clin Infect Dis. 41: 481–487, 2005.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  121. Kyaw, M. H., Lynfield, R., Schaffner, W., Craig, A. S., Hadler, J., Reingold, A., Thomas, A. R., Harrison, L. H., Bennett, N. M., Farley, M. M., Facklam, R. R., Jorgensen, J. H., Besser, J., Zell, E. R., Schuchat, A., and Whitney, C. G. Effect of introduction of the pneumococcal conjugate vaccine on drug-resistant Streptococcus pneumoniae. N Engl J Med. 354: 1455–1463, 2006.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  122. Okeke, I. N., Klugman, K. P., Bhutta, Z. A., Duse, A. G., Jenkins, P., O’Brien, T. F., Pablos-Mendez, A., and Laxminarayan, R. Antimicrobial resistance in developing countries. Part II: strategies for containment. Lancet Infect Dis. 5: 568–580, 2005.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  123. Phillips, I. Beta-lactamase-producing, penicillin-resistant gonococcus. Lancet. 2: 656–657, 1976.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  124. Elwell, L. P., De Graaff, J., Seibert, D., and Falkow, S. Plasmid-linked ampicillin resistance in haemophilus influenza type b. Infect Immun. 12: 404–410, 1975.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  125. Tapsall, J. W. What management is there for gonorrhea in the postquinolone era? Sex Transm Dis. 33: 8–10, 2006.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  126. Girard, M. P., Preziosi, M. P., Aguado, M. T., and Kieny, M. P. A review of vaccine research and development: Meningococcal disease. Vaccine, 2006.

    Google Scholar 

Suggested Reading

  • Levy, S. B., The Antibiotic Paradox: How the Misuse of Antibiotics Destroys Their Curative Powers, 2nd Edition, Cambridge, MA: Perseus Publications, 2002.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shnayerson, M, Plotkin, M. The Killers Within: The Deadly Rise of Drug-Resistant Bacteria, Little Brown and Co: Boston, 2002.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Division of Healthcare Quality Promotion, National Center for the Prevention, Detection, and Control of Infectious Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia 30333, USA

    Fred C. Tenover

  2. Department of Epidemiology, The Rollins School of Public Health of Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia 30322, USA

    John E. McGowan Jr

Authors
  1. Fred C. Tenover
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. John E. McGowan Jr
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Clifton Road NE., 1518, Atlanta, 30322, U.S.A.

    Philip S. Brachman

  2. College of Medicine, Office of Faculty Affairs, Drexel University, Race Street 1505, Philadelphia, 19102, U.S.A.

    Elias Abrutyn

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2009 Springer Science+Business Media, LLC

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Tenover, F.C., McGowan, J.E. (2009). The Epidemiology of Bacterial Resistance to Antimicrobial Agents. In: Brachman, P., Abrutyn, E. (eds) Bacterial Infections of Humans. Springer, Boston, MA. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-09843-2_4

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-09843-2_4

  • Published:

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Boston, MA

  • Print ISBN: 978-0-387-09842-5

  • Online ISBN: 978-0-387-09843-2

  • eBook Packages: MedicineMedicine (R0)

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation